Obedience Flashcards

Question

What were the results of the Lack of Uniform?

Answer 1

In the original the experimenter wore a grey lab coat as a symbol of his authority (a uniform). In a variation the experimenter was called away because of an inconvenient telephone call right at the start of the experiment. The role was taken over by an ordinary member of the public ( a confederate) in everyday clothes. Obedience was 20%.

Answer 2

Women were found to show similar levels of obedience by Milgram.

Answer 3

* Sheridan and King (1972) - puppy love * Bickman (1974) - the power of uniforms * Hoffling et al (1966) - nurses

Answer 4

Students trained a puppy to learn a discrimination task by punishing it with increasingly severe real electric shocks whenever it made an error. Although the puppy actually received only a small shock, the participants could see and hear its squeals. After a while, an odourless anaesthetic was released into the puppy's cage, causing it to fall asleep. Although participants complained about the procedure (and some even cried), they were reminded that the puppy's failure to respond was a punishable error, and that they should continue to give shocks. 75% of participants delivered the maximum shock possible. All the female participants went to the maximum level of shock but only 54% of the males did.

Answer 5

- Women are more obedient - This study supports Milgram's study by showing that women can be obedient but it also doesn't support as only 54% of the males did, unlike Milgram's study - Questions Milgram's validity as he found similar levels of obedience but it shows women are more obedient

Answer 6

Three male researchers gave orders to 153 randomly selected pedestrians in New York The researchers were dressed in one of three ways: in a suit and tie, a milkman's uniform, or a guard's uniform. They gave various orders for example: • Pointing to a bag on the street - "Pick up this bag for me" • Nodding in the direction of a confederate - "This fellow is over parked at the meter, but doesn't have any change. Give him a dime". Bickman found that participants were most likely to obey the researcher dressed as a guard (80%) than the milk man or civilian (40%). - field experiment

Answer 7

It's more valid because it's a field experiment so they would be acting normally so there would be no demand characteristics whereas in Milgram's it was a lab experiement.

Answer 8

Informed Consent

Answer 9

Done to overcome the criticism against the artificial environment in Milgrams study. Twenty two nurses working in various American hospitals received telephone calls from a "stooge" Dr. Smith of the psychiatry department, instructing them to give a patient Mr. Jones 20 mg of a drug called Astrofen (lethal drug). Dr. Smith said that he was in a desperate hurry and would sign the drug authorization form when he came to see the patient in 10 minutes. The label on the box containing Astrofen (which was actually a harmless sugar pill) clearly stated that the maximum daily dose. Also she would be breaking the rules requiring written authorization before any drug is given and that a nurse be absolutely sure that Dr. Smith is a genuine doctor. Of a control group of 22 different nurses asked this same question, 21 said they would not have given the drug without written authorization, especially as it exceeded the maximum daily dose. A real doctor was posted nearby, unseen by the nurse, and observed what the nurse did after the telephone call. 21 out of the 22 nurses obeyed without hesitation. This has been criticized for not being valid since the nurses were not familiar with the drug. When the study was replicated using valium not many nurses were ready to administer it without checking again with the doctor, pharmacy or supervisor.

Answer 10

- Due to the presence of a legitimate authority figure (doctor) - It was perceived as urgent

Answer 11

- sampling - experimental realism - ecological validity

Answer 12

This measures whether the experimental design actually did the job it set out to do. If the experimental set up was not believable then the participants probably wouldn't behave as they would normally in such situations.

Answer 13

The sample was unrepresentative because they only used male participants and volunteers.

Answer 14

- Tested over 1000 participants from a typical American town. - Tested 40 women. 65% administered shocks up to 450 volts. Comparable to obedience shown by men.

Answer 15

It lacks experimental realism (Orne & Holland) as participants did not believe they were giving electric shocks to another person and obedience was due to demand characteristics.

Answer 16

- 70% participants reported that they believed the set up. - The genuine distress of the participants counts against this criticism - Sheridan’s study with puppies used real shocks and people showed high obedience levels (75%)

Answer 17

It lacks ecological validity because of the artificial situation and payment might have made them feel obliged to continue

Answer 18

- Field studies have found higher rates of obedience - Hofflings hospital study, Bickman’s uniform study - People obey in real life because of social contracts

Answer 19

- Informed Consent - Deception - Right to Withdraw - Protection from Harm - Socially Sensitive Research

Answer 20

Consent was given to participate in a study on effect of punishment on learning not obedience

Answer 21

- Deception was necessary - Help people to review value systems be aware of destructive obedience

Answer 22

- Not told of true nature of experiment - Made to believe they were giving real electric shocks - Believed learner was real participant

Answer 23

- Deception was essential - Everyone was fully debriefed - Shown that the learner was unharmed and had not receive any shocks

Answer 24

- Those wishing to stop were told they had no choice but to go on - It was made difficult

Answer 25

- They could have left no one was physically restrained - He was measuring whether people would withdraw from the study

Answer 26

Cause Distress to the participants: - Seizure - Guilt or lack of self esteem

Answer 27

- Results were unexpected (thought everyone would stop before 300 Volts) - All were debriefed and reassured - Made to meet the learner to see he had come to now harm - All were examined by a psychiatrist after one year and no signs of harm were observed - Follow up survey a year later showed: 80% - more experiments like Milgrams 70% - learnt something of personal value 84% - glad to have participated 15% - Neutral 1.3% - Sorry to have participated

Answer 28

His situational explanation of obedience offers an alibi/excuse for evil behaviour- may be offensive to survivors of the holocaust to suggest that the Nazi’s were victims of the situation- not in their control.

Answer 29

- Location (lab experiments, Yale Uni, random office) - Uniform - Proximity of the authority figure: absent experimenter condition - Proximity of the victim (learner): proximity and touch proximity condition

Answer 30

When at Yale Uni 65% went to max shock level but the participants said they continued giving shocks because it's a highly prestigious institution but when they went to a rundown office only 47.5% went to the highest shock level.

Answer 31

In the original study, the experiments (authority figures) wore grey lab coats (65%)

Answer 32

When the authority figure left the room and sent the message over text the obedience was lower (20%). But when there was two authority figures, the obedience went up (92.5%)

Answer 33

Other studies have demonstrated the influence of these situational factors on obedience. In a field study in New York City, Bickman found that people were more likely to obey a person dressed as a guard than one dressed in a milkman.

Answer 34

Other studies have demonstrated the influence of these situational factors on obedience. In a field study in New York City, Bickman found that people were more likely to obey a person dressed as a guard than one dressed in a milkman.

Answer 35

Another strength of Milgrams variations is that he systematically altered one variable at a time (e.g. proximity) to see the effect on the level of obedience. All the other variables and procedures were kept the same when the study was replicated over and over again. This is a strength because it implies that the findings can be repeated and that they are reliable.

Answer 36

His findings have been replicated in other cultures and gender and findings have been supportive of his original research. This implies that his conclusions about obedience are not limited to American males, but are valid across cultures and apply to females. as well.

Answer 37

Participants in the variations might have worked out that the procedure was faked. This may have led to demand characteristics. This is a limitation because it would be unclear if the results are due to obedience or because the particants saw through the deception and acted accordingly - decreasing internal validity.

Answer 38

Most replications of the variations have been in developed societies which are culturally similar to the US. So the findings may not apply to collectivistic cultures.

Answer 39

Milgrams findings from his variations suggest that situational factors affect obedience. This has been critised by Mandel who argues that this offers an excuse for evil behaviour.

Answer 40

1. agentic theory 2. legitimacy of authority

Answer 41

During the Nuremberg trials of the Nazis, many pleaded that they were not guilty as they were only obeying orders. This lead Milgram to argue that when people obey orders they do not feel responsible for their actions, instead they see themselves as agents" for what they perceive as person with legitimate authority. They can act against their moral values but feel unable to stop.

Answer 42

- autonomous state - agentic state

Answer 43

mental state where we feel free to behave according to our principles and values, and feel a sense of responsibility for their own actions.

Answer 44

A mental state where we feel no responsibility for our behaviour because we believe that we are acting for an authority figure as their agents.

Answer 45

A mental state where we feel no responsibility for our behaviour because we believe that we are acting for an authority figure as their agents.

Answer 46

• The person giving the orders is perceived as being qualified to direct other people's behaviour. That is, they are seen as legitimate authority due to their position in social hierarchy • The person being ordered about is able to believe that the authority will accept responsibility for what happens.

Answer 47

When acting against their moral values they experience high anxiety, moral strain as they realise that what they do is wrong but they feel powerless in disobeying.

Answer 48

They remain in an agentic state because of binding factors - people use strategies to reduce the degree of moral strain people shift the responsibility for the results of their actions on the figure of authority who gave the orders, shifting responsibility to the victim or deny the severity of the resulting damage.

Answer 49

Bass and Schmitt (2001) showed a film of Milgram's study to students then asked them who they thought was responsible for the harm done to Mr Wallace they blamed the "experimenter". They saw the experimenter as a legitimate authority figure. This supports the agentic state because it suggests that the experimenter takes the responsibility.

Answer 50

There could be alternative reasons for why people obey an authority figure. It could be due to personality rather than the situation.

Answer 51

However Agentic shift is a limited explanation. It does not explain behaviour in some research findings. a) The agentic shift predicts that the nurses should have shown levels of anxiety similar to Milgram’s participants as they understood their role in the destructive process - but this wasn’t the case. b) Another example is of the German battalion 101 where men obeyed orders to shoot civilians despite the fact they did not have direct orders to do so - they had been told they could be assigned to other duties if they preferred. So they did not act due to agentic but due to autonomous.

Answer 52

From an early age we are socialised to accept that people who have justified authority due to their position in the social hierarchy have the right to tell us what to do since it keeps society functioning smoothly.

Answer 53

We are more likely to obey people who we perceive as to have authority over us. This authority is justified by the person's credentials and by their position of power within a social hierarchy.

Answer 54

There is a research support for the explanation. Holfing’s study supports the explanation (21/22 nurses obeyed). There are real life examples of obedience due to perception of legitimate authority such as the My Lai massacre in 1968 in Vietnam where nearly 504 unarmed civilians were killed by American soldiers, women gang raped, all animals killed. Their defence was that they were following orders. These studies are strengths of the legitimacy of authority explanation as they listen to people who have higher authority than as they are seemed as legitimate and legal. The consequences wouldn’t be their responsibility, it would be the authority person responsibility.

Answer 55

Studies have shown that countries differed in degree to which people are traditionally obedient to authority based on how children are raised to perceive authority figures. This shows that in some cultures, authority is more likely to be accepted as legitimate and lead to higher obedience. This is a strength since it increases the validity of the explanation.

Answer 56

- gradual commitment (the foot in the door technique) - buffers

Answer 57

- once people comply to one order they are more likely to comply more - we have a desire to appear consistent

Answer 58

any aspect of a situation that prevents the individual from having to confront the consequences of their actions e.g. the wall in Milgram's electric shock study

Answer 59

These are factors which relate to the individual differences of the person who obeys and not the situation.

Answer 60

Adorno and his team wanted to understand the behaviour of the Nazis during the Holocaust. However their focus was very different, they looked at personality factors and tried to identify personality traits to explain their behaviour.

Answer 61

Authoritarian Personality is a type of personality that was susceptible to obeying people in authority. They are submissive to those of higher status and dismissive of inferiors.

Answer 62

- conformist/ conventional attitudes towards gender and race - obedient/ service towards people of perceived higher status

Answer 63

To investigate the causes of obedient personality

Answer 64

he carried on with his study on over 2000 white middle-class Americans. His tests were designed to reveal unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups. A number of scales were developed to measure this including the • potentiality for fascism (F Scale) to measure authoritarian personality.

Answer 65

- obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn. - there is hardly anything lower than a person who doesn’t feel a great love, gratitude and respect for their parents.

Answer 66

Adorno et al found a positive correlation between the authoritarian personality and prejudice. He found that these people have fixed stereotypes about other groups and showed excessive respect and deference to those of higher status. Women obey more than men. Women are more obedient than men.

Answer 67

Suggests it was the result of harsh parenting. This parenting style involves conventional attitudes towards gender and race. They are harsh to lower status are obedient + respectful towards higher authority. These experiences create hostility (unconscious feelings). This leads to authoritarian personality (respecting/ obeying authority)

Answer 68

Milgram conducted interviews with a small sample of fully obedient participants, who scored highly on the F scale. This is a strength because it shows that there is a correlation between obedience and authoritarian.

Answer 69

It seems to have political bias. It seems to measure extreme right wing political beliefs. However rigid thinking and intolerance of different views have been found equally on the extreme left wing politics such as Chinese Marxism. So this explanation is not a comprehensive dispositional explanation that can explain obedience across the political spectrum. This explanation cannot explain obedience of entire social groups. E.g. the anti semitic nazi state. Individuals displayed obedience but they could not all have had the same personality. The social identify theory probably would be a better explanation.

Answer 70

The studies supporting authoritarian personality have found a positive correlation between some variables such as authoritarian parenting and development of an authoritarian personality. This however is a limitation because it does not establish a cause and effect relationship between authoritarian personality, parenting style and obedience. The explanation is based on flawed methodology. The scale has been criticized becaue all the statements are same direction - this could lead to acquiescence. You could get a high score on authoritarianism by ticking the same line of boxes. So people may not actually have an authoritarian personality but are merely (acquiescers). Affects the reliability and validity of the explanation.

Answer 71

Adorno interviewed the participants about their childhood experiences- but the researchers knew the test scores and the hypothesis of the study. This is a limitation as it could lead to demand characteristics. Measurement of authoritarian personality relies on self report data - may be unreliable. Situational factors have a greater influence on obedience than dispositional factors because if personality affected obedience then it would be the same across situations.

Answer 72

Refers to the ability of people to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority or obey authority. This ability is influenced by both situational and dispositional factors.

Answer 73

1. social support - situational explanation 2.locus of control - dispositional explanation

Answer 74

- resistance to obedience or conforming increases when there is social support (when we see someone else doing it). - defiance/ non conformity is more likely if others are seen to resist the influence.

Answer 75

- It breaks the unanimous position of the majority in conformity situations and challenges the legitimacy of the authority figure in obedience situations. - Disobedient peers act as role models on which the individuals can model their behaviour. - Seeing others disobey/ not conform gives the observer the confidence to do so too. The individual now can make an independent assessment of the reality - Social support leading to resistance to influence can be explained by reduced normative pressure

Answer 76

Asch shows that if there a non-conforming ally ( presence of a dissenter) then conformity drops to 25%. However if the model then started to conform then the participant also conformed so the change is short-lived.

Answer 77

There is research support for the impact of social support on resistance to conformity. Allen and Levine (1971) replicated Asch's experiment with two conditions. In the first condition there was invalid social support - the dissenter wore thick glasses (implying he had poor vision). In the second condition they provided valid social support - the supporter had normal vision. Both conditions reduced the amount of conformity showing that an ally is helpful in resisting conformity and freeing yourself from group pressure

Answer 78

Allen and Levine found that the response position of the person providing social support affects whether the participant resists the majority. Support was significantly more effective if the confederate answered first rather than fourth in a replication of Asch's line judgement task. This may be that the correct first answer, confirms the participant's initial commitment to the correct response and this persists even though the other group members disagree.

Answer 79

The pressure to obey can be reduced if there is another person who is seen to disobey. In one of Milgram's variations the rate of obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when the genuine participant was joined by a disobedient confederate. The other person's disobedience acts as a model for the participant to copy and that frees him to act from his own conscience.

Answer 80

LOC is how much a person believes that they have control over events that happen in their lives. This is measured along a scale with internal control at one end and external control' at the other end.

Answer 81

People with an internal locus of control are more likely to resist pressure to conform and are less likely to obey than those with an external locus of control.

Answer 82

He believes that some people have an Internal Locus of Control and others have an External Locus of Control.

Answer 83

Believe that things that happen to them are largely controlled by themselves - due to their ability and effort.

Answer 84

People high on internality are less concerned with social approval, and are better able to resist social influence. They take responsibility for their actions.

Answer 85

1. Active seekers of information- less likely to rely on opinion of others. 2. More achievement oriented - more likely to be leaders than followers. 3. Better able to resist co-ercion from others 4. More self confident 5. Take personal responsibility for their actions- so base decisions on own beliefs.

Answer 86

"I really should have studied more. I know that I didn't put as much effort into revision as I could have."

Answer 87

Tend to believe that whatever happens to them is determined by external factors such as influence of others or luck - things are out of their control.

Answer 88

People high on externality approach events with a passive, fatalistic attitude, taking less responsibility for their actions, are less independent and more likely to accept the influence of others.

Answer 89

“I had a rubbish teacher. My little brother kept interrupting me when I tried to revise. The exam was on a really bad day.”

Answer 90

Holland replicated Milgram's electric shock study

Answer 91

Holland replicated Milgram's study and tested participants, he grouped them into internals and externals. He found that 37% of the internals did not continue to the highest shock ( showed resistance) compared to 23% of the externals who did not continue. This increases the validity of the LOC explanation in explaining resistance.

Answer 92

However not all research supports this link between LOC and resistance. Twenge (2004) analysed data from American obedience studies over a 40 year period and found that resistance to obedience has increased over time but so has externality. If resistence was linked to an internal locus of control then we should expect people to have become more internal and not external. This challenges the link between internal LOC and increasing resistant behaviour.

Answer 93

Rotter (1982) argues that LOC is more important in new situations, in familiar situations we tend to refer back to previous experience. So it has very little influence on our behaviour in familiar situations. This is a limitation because it implies that LOC can explain resistance in only limited situations.

Answer 94

• Personal experience including education: Educate people about the problems of blind obedience. It has been found that when individuals learn about the results of social psychological research such as Milgram's study, they sometimes change their behaviour in light of the new knowledge. • Questioning the motive of the person giving the order • Individual differences : people with high self esteem, confident personality or no need for social approval are less likely to go along with the group

Answer 95

• Cultural factors: individuals from societies that stress the importance of personal determination (individualistic cultures) are more likely to resist the pressure to conform than those from collectivist cultures. • Reactance/ Boomerang effect ( study this under the last section on social change) • Gender: Males have been shown to be more independent than women.

Answer 96

• Increased distance between the participant and the authority figure also affects defiance. In Milgrams study defiance increased when the orders were given over the phone. • Low status of location (Milgram's study in a rundown office) • Increased distance between the participant and victim

Answer 97

• Lack of uniform • Being in an autonomous state • Not legitimate authority • Not an ambiguous task

Answer 98

Social change is when a society adopts a new belief or way of believing that then becomes widely accepted as the norm.

Answer 99

One example of social change is attitudes towards homosexuality. Although it was an imprisonable offence in the UK until 1967, public attitudes have changed over time and most people now regard being gay as a normal variation of human behaviour. Eventually new laws have been created to protect the rights of gay people, and in 2005 same sex civil partnerships were introduced This represents a huge change in society in a relatively short period of just 50 years.

Answer 100

Minority Influence refers to situations where one person or a small group of people ( a minority) persuades others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviour

Answer 101

It leads to internalisation in which both public behaviour and private beliefs are changed by the process.

Answer 102

This is different from conformity where the majority of a large group of people influences the beliefs and behaviour of other people.

Answer 103

Minorities bring about social change through internalisation ( both public and private behaviour and beliefs are changed), by being consistent, flexible and committed. Through social crypto-amnesia and the snow ball effect, gradually the minority turns into the majority.

Answer 104

To investigate the process of innovation by looking at how a consistent minority affect the opinions of a larger group, possibly creating doubt and leading them to question and alter their views

Answer 105

The group of participants were first given an eye test to check that they were not colour blind. They were then placed in a group of four participants and two confederates. They were all shown 36 slides that were different shades of blue and asked to state the colour out loud. There were two groups in the experiment. - In the first group the confederates were consistent and answered green for every slide. - In the second group the confederates were inconsistent and answered green 24 times and blue 12 times.

Answer 106

In the consistent group 8.42% of trials resulted in P's answering green (agreeing with the minority). 32% of the P's agreed at least once. In the inconsistent group 1.25% of trials resulted in P's answering green.

Answer 107

The study suggested that minorities can change the opinion of the majority, particularly if they are consistent.

Answer 108

270 college students were asked to role play the part of jurors and read a summary of a court case presented in the film Twelve Angry Men. The students who were all unfamiliar with the film had to decide whether the accused was guilty. Participants were given a summary of a murder case and the jury's decision about key pieces of evidence. The persuasiveness of the arguments and the views of the jury were manipulated. The participants were asked their views about the guilt of the defendant at various stages. Clark found that participants were most persuaded when they heard consistent persuasive arguments from the minority jury members and when they learned that more than one juror had defeated from the majority position.

Answer 109

Research shows that consistency is the most important behavioural characteristic that the minority should possess in order to influence the majority.

Answer 110

Moscovici also suggested it is important for the minority to show commitment and flexibility.

Answer 111

Minority influence is effective if the minority keeps the same beliefs, both over time and in between all the individuals that form the minority.

Answer 112

They are all saying the same thing

Answer 113

They've been saying the same thing for some time now.

Answer 114

They reassess the situation and rethink their own views more carefully because if there must be a reason why the minority thinks this way.

Answer 115

Activities must create some risk to the minority to demonstrate Commitment to the cause. E.g. they've made some personal sacrifice.

Answer 116

This shows that they are not acting out of self interest. It suggests confidence, courage in the face of a hostile majority. It shows that the minority are willing to suffer for their views and this persuades others to Tu them seriously. This is called the augmentation principle.

Answer 117

Minority should be prepared to adapt their view point and accept reasonable and valid counter arguments. Extreme consistency can be counterproductive.

Answer 118

If a minority is too rigid in views then there is a risk that they will be viewed as being narrow minded, unbending, refusing to see anyone else's opinion. This is off putting to a majority and is unlikely to lead to any conversion to the minority position. The key is to have a balance between consistency and flexibility

Answer 119

1. Drawing Attention to an Issue: If minority views are different from the majority's it creates a conflict that people want to reduce. 2. Cognitive Conflict: The conflict created will require the members of the majority to think more deeply about the issues as their views are being challenged. 3. Consistency of Position: Moscovici showed that consistency increases the chances of changing the majority's views. 4. The Augmentation Effect: The minority appears willing to suffer for their cause so is taken more seriously by the majority. 5. The Snowball Effect: A minority converts a small group of people to their views, this group converts other people. Over time the original minority view can become the view of the majority. 6. Social Cryptoamnesia: Minority ideas are assimilated into the majority viewpoint without those in the majority remembering where the ideas came from.

Obedience Flashcards

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