Observations-research methods

Question 1

research aim

Answer 1

is a statement of what we are interested in investigating. E.g. to investigate if there is a gender difference in mobile phone use.

Question 2

research question

Answer 2

is a question relating to what is being investigated (?). It is often more specific than a research aim.

Question 3

What do you need to consider when carrying out an observation?

Answer 3

When to observe (which day of the week, what time, for how long?)
Where to observe (naturalistic or controlled setting)
What to observe (what behaviours are you going to focus on?
How to observe (overt or covert, participant observer or non-participant, event or time sampling?)
Who to observe (sample, sample size, sampling method)

Question 4

Structured observations

Answer 4

A structured observation is where you look for very specific behaviours and keep a tally of every time you see a certain behaviour. To use a structured observation you need a coding frame. This means you can collect quantitative data.

Question 5

Unstructured observations

Answer 5

An unstructured observation is where you observe participants without knowing what behaviours you are looking out for. Unstructured observations generally create a qualitative description of what you’ve seen.

Question 6

Advantages of structured observations

Answer 6

Useful- key guidelines have been set out to find out specif things
Easy to compare results

Question 7

Disadvantage of structured observations

Answer 7

Spontaneous behaviour is not counted for if it is not in the pre-test list.
We don’t know why we only know the amount of time something happens (a tally)
Subjective it’s coding is not spefic

Question 8

Example of structured observations

Answer 8

Bandura

Question 9

Unstructured interview advantages

Answer 9

more detail
more accature as we are recording everything
does not limit data that can be collected
high in construct validity

Question 10

Unstructured interview disadvantage

Answer 10

Difficult to record all data
low inter rater reliability
very difficult to compare and analyse we cannot replicate

Question 11

Example of unstructured interview

Answer 11

Stanford Prison experiment

Question 12

Naturalistic observations

Answer 12

are when you observe people in a natural setting (like in a field experiment).

Question 13

Controlled observations

Answer 13

are when you put people in a controlled, lab-like environment and observe their behaviour.

Question 14

Strength of naturalistic observations

Answer 14

Natural behaviours seen (higher ecological validity)
May allow you to record unexpected behaviours

Question 15

Weaknesses of naturalistic observations

Answer 15

Less control of extraneous variables
Harder to record behaviour (e.g. in distance, other people in the way)

Question 16

Strengths of controlled observations

Answer 16

Less control of extraneous variables
Harder to record behaviour (e.g. in distance, other people in the way)

Question 17

Weaknesses of controlled observations

Answer 17

Risk of demand characteristics if participants know they are being observed
Lower ecological validity

Question 18

What is a coding frame

Answer 18

Set perimeters to know what berhaviours need to be tallied- only needed for structured interviews

Question 19

behaviour categorizes

Answer 19

List of behaviours your recording

Question 20

Ethics of observational studies

Answer 20

Observations are only acceptable in public situations where those observed would expect to be observed by strangers.

Question 21

Informed consent for observations

Answer 21

A poster can be displayed beforehand explaining where and when the observation will be taking place, what behaviours will be observed, and advising people of what to do if they wish to avoid being observed.

Question 22

Debrief for observations

Answer 22

A poster is displayed afterwards explaining what had happened which means that they can find out about the purpose of the study after and why they were not informed before and giving a contact number if anyone wants to find out more

Question 23

What ethical issues are protected when the observations is done overtly

Answer 23

informed consent or right to withdraw or no deception as participants are aware of the observation and can avoid taking place is they want to and consent is also not need in a public seeting.

Question 24

Participant observations

Answer 24

Participant observations are when the observer goes ‘undercover’ and pretends to be in the group of people that he/she is observing.

Question 25

Non-participant observation

Answer 25

Non-participant observations are when the participants are observed by someone from outside the group (e.g. when CCTV is used).

Question 26

Strengths of participant observation

Answer 26

Allows you to see behaviours which are difficult to spot Provides greater depth as you can record reasons for behaviours

Question 27

Weaknesses of participant observation

Answer 27

Observers may become too involved and lose objectivity Presence of the observer may affect behaviour

Question 28

Strengths of non participant observation

Answer 28

More ethical as researchers are not directly impacting the behaviour Easier to record the behaviour accurately

Question 29

Weaknesses of non participants observations

Answer 29

Less insight into the reasons for the behaviour shown View may be obstructed (observing from a distance)

Question 30

Covert observation

Answer 30

Covert observations involve observing people without their knowledge

Question 31

Overt observation

Answer 31

Overt observations are carried out in a way the participants are aware they are being observed

Question 32

Strength of overt observations

Answer 32

Avoids the ethical issues as participants are aware they are being studied Can be open in tallying behaviours so it’s easier to record data

Question 33

Weaknesses of overt observations

Answer 33

Participants know they are being observed so could change their behaviour Biased sample as only those who agree to be observed are included

Question 34

Strengths of covert observations

Answer 34

Allows natural behaviours to be observed (so more valid - no demand characteristics)

Question 35

Weaknesses of covert observations

Answer 35

Difficult to record behaviours without raising suspicion Ethical issues of a lack of consent, participants cannot withdraw

Question 36

Event sampling

Answer 36

In the event sampling, the observer keeps a count of each time a particular pre-determined behaviour occurs. They record behaviours for the whole duration of the observation.

Question 37

Time sampling

Answer 37

In time sampling, the time period to be observed in broken up into a series of time intervals, and records of behaviour are related to these time intervals.

Question 38

Event sampling advantages

Answer 38

All behaviours are recorded (nothing is missed out) Better for recording behaviours which are not frequent.

Question 39

Disadvantageous of event sampling

Answer 39

Time consuming and difficult to keep concentration over a long period of time. Difficult to record all behavior is there is a lot going on Does not tell you when the behaviours occurred

Question 40

Advantages of time sampling

Answer 40

Can see when behaviour occurs and if it changes over the time period Does not require the observer to concentrate throughout the time period

Question 41

Disadvantages of time sampling

Answer 41

Data recorded may not be full representative of what occurred Can miss interesting data between time periods

Question 42

Type and level of data of coding frame

Answer 42

quantitative and nominal level

Question 43

Observer bias

Answer 43

Observer only records data that fits there aim-this can be unconscious

Question 44

Observer effect

Answer 44

Participants behaviour differently due to being observed

Question 45

How can carrying out the observation covertly effect the validity

Answer 45

Participants would show natural behaviours as they are unaware their behaviours is being observed (no demand characteristics) this increases internal validity This could cause ethical issues as participants would not have informed consent.

Question 46

How can carrying out the observations in a naturalistic observation effect the validity

Answer 46

Ecological validity is increased as behaviours are likely to reflect what participants typically do Could mean a lack of control over exteronous variables may make it more difficult for observers to record all behaviors accurately.

Question 47

How can having an independent observer effect the validity

Answer 47

The observers have no interest in proving a particular theory so will be more objective in recording the behaviour reduced the observer bias which improves the internal validity They could still interpret the behavior wrong which reduces internal validity

Question 48

How can maiming the operationalise the coding frame effect the reliability

Answer 48

It can improve the reliability as it should help all observers to be consistent with each other on exactly what will or won't count in the actual use of the coding frame. Reliability is reduced as it is very difficult to be precise on exactly what will or won't count as each behaviour category.

Question 49

How can training the observer in how to use the coding frame effect validity

Answer 49

It could improve reliability as this should help all observers to be consistent with each other in how they are applying the coding frame It could be reduced as behaviours could occur which has not been anticipated in training therefore it could still be unclear on how to categorize them

Question 50

How does running a pilot effect the reliability of the observation

Answer 50

It improves the reliability as the practice run should help bring out any possible issues which could occur It could reduce the reliability as not all unclear or unanticipated behaviours will crop up in a practice run.

Question 51

How can using a number of different observers effects the reliability

Answer 51

It improves the reliability as it enables a check on whether inter-rater reliability has been found It can reduces the reliability as it throws up the issue of what to do if the observers are not in agreement with each other on the data recorded

Question 52

How a large sample can effect the external reliability

Answer 52

It will help to establish of a consistent trend if behaviours has been found across participants during the observations It can reduces reliability as it can be time consuming to find or observe enough participants.

Question 53

Inter rater reliability

Answer 53

Consistency between two or more observers of some behavior and coding and compare-high comparison means high inter rater reliability.