OChem/BioChem Lecture Flashcards
(247 cards)
1
Q
What is Chemistry?
A
The study of matter and the changes it undergoes
2
Q
What are the 3 things the Universe consists of?
A
Matter
Energy
Empty Space
3
Q
How does Chemistry apply to Anesthesia?
A
understanding of chemistry is needed to fully comprehend many physiological processes related to metabolism, pharmacology, and trouble-shooting during critical situations
4
Q
What functional group forms fatty acids?
A
Alkanes & Alkenes
5
Q
What is the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry?
A
O: covalent, low melt point, insol h2o, sol in organic sol, non-conduct electricity, burn, slow reactions
I: ionic, high melt point, soluble in water, insol in organic sol, conduct elect, only few burn, quick reactions
6
Q
What is organic chemistry?
A
Study of compounds containing Carbon (mainly, but also oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen)
also: phos, sulf, & halogens
7
Q
What is Biochemistry?
A
Study of chemical reactions and compounds in living things
8
Q
T/F Organic compounds are derived from or produced by living organisms, while Inorganic compounds are derived from nonliving components
A
Typically true, but both can be made from each other or in a lab
9
Q
What are the Halogens?
A
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine
10
Q
What are the atomic numbers of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen?
A
H: 1
N: 7
O: 8
11
Q
What is the major factor that is the basis of Hydrogen bonds?
A
Electronegativity: H2O for instance, oxygen needs 2 more electrons to complete valance shell thus bonds with the two hydrogens to complete shell.
12
Q
What molecules are more form stronger bonds: polar or nonpolar?
A
Polar: unequal sharing of electrons (stronger bond), overall neutral charge
nonpolar: equal sharing of electrons, over all neg or pos
13
Q
_______ material can be made in a lab from _______ material.
A
Organic, Inorganic
14
Q
What causes the difference in properties between organic and inorganic material?
A
difference in structure
15
Q
What is the Octet rule?
A
elements want 8 electrons in valence shell to be “stable”
Very low # of electrons: 2 stabilize shell
16
Q
What element group has 7 electrons in valence shell?
A
Halogens
17
Q
What’s the difference between an ionic and covalent bond?
A
covalent bonds share an electron, while ionic bonds take an electron from another molecule. this causes covalent bonds to be stronger due to electronegativity between the two molecules.
18
Q
What is the most simple element?
A
Hydrogen
19
Q
If a molecule takes an electron from another, this forms an _____ bond- creating an ____. This frequently results in a ___ charge.
A
ionic, ion, -1
20
Q
What are most inhaled anesthetic gases halogenated ethers?
A
they are typically halogenated ethers OR ethers with a halogen attached bc it decreases flammability/toxicity
21
Q
Why is Carbon such an important element?
A
it is a foundation for all living things, ranging in diverse size and complexity of compounds.
22
Q
How many atoms can a single carbon form covalent bonds with?
A
6 atomic # - 2 on inner shell = 4 valence shell electrons = 4 covalent bonds to be formed (chains, branches, rings)
23
Q
How does Hydrogen become stable since it only has one electron?
A
forms a covalent bond, sharing an electron (2 in valence shell) or loses electron and becomes an ion which makes it simply a proton (all that left)
24
Q
How many bonds does nitrogen typically like to make and why?
A
atomic #: 7, has 2 outer shells. 1 lone pair of electrons in outer shell, 5 -2 on inside = 3 pairs preferred.
If 4 bonds, loses an electron and becomes slightly +
25
What is a major difference between nitrogen and oxygen?
oxygen has more protons in its core which tends to hog the electrons rather than completing shell - this makes it a polar compound, having a slightly variation of electronegativity on the molecule
26
What is the most electronegative element?
Fluorine
Oxygen is a close second
27
Why aren't molecules with a high atomic weight highly electronegative?
They have more valence shells which decreases the attraction to the positive core. only electrons on outer shell can react w/ other molecules
28
T/F if carbon forms a compound with a positive element and the overall charge is +, carbon becomes +
False, carbon always remains neutral
29
What are the 6 Functional groups covered?
1. Alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and arenes
2. Alcohols
3. Amines & Amides
4.Carboxylic Acids (-COOH)
5. Aldehydes & Ketones
6. Esters
7. Ethers
8. Thiols & Sulfides
30
Hydrocarbons consist of:
Alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes, alkynes, and arenes
31
Saturated hydrocarbons w/ single bond (usually in a chain):
Alkanes
32
Cyclic hydrocarbon, saturated in a ring
Cycloalkane
33
T/F When a molecule forms double and triple bonds, it needs more hydrogens.
False, valance shell is already filled with these multiples, requiring less hydrogens
34
Double bonded unsaturated hydrocarbon chain:
Alkene
35
Triple bonded hydrocarbon chain:
Alkyne
36
Double bonded unsaturated hydrocarbon ring:
Arene
37
What are saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
s: each carbons have max hydrogen bonds
uns: must have double or triple bonds OR a benzene ring to satisfy due to lack of hydrogens
38
What hydrocarbons are unsaturated?
Alkenes, alkynes, and arenes
39
Which two hydrocarbons are saturated?
Alkanes and cycloalkanes
40
Fats and oils are typically made of what functional group?
Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkynes, alkenes, and arenes
41
When alkanes contain ____ carbons they are gases @ room temp, while when the contain ____ carbons they are colorless liquids. High mol. weight alkanes containing ___+ carbons are white waxy soilds
1-4, 5-17, 18+
42
Paraffin wax, candles, and petroleum are examples of:
High molecular weight alkanes
43
____ & ____ are commonly called *aliphatic hydrocarbons* due to physical properties resembling fat chains in animal/plant fat/oils.
Alkanes and alkenes
44
What is the most important physical property of hydrocarbons?
Complete lack of polarity, thus insoluble in water due to pre-exsisting hydrogen bonds/carbon satisfaction.
45
Why do alkanes and alkenes have different states of matter at room temperature?
Alkanes are fully saturated hydrocarbons, which allows them to pack tightly and form a solid, while alkenes have a double bond which prevents them from packing tightly, thus taking on the form of a liquid.
46
Cyclopropane is an example of a _________.
Cycloalkane. It is an anesthetic gas no longer used due to the being *Highly Explosive*
47
What caused Cyclopropane to be highly explosive?
Alkanes can react with oxygen leading to oxidation or combustion = resulting in Carbon dioxide, H2o, and fire/explosions
48
Halothane is a mixture of
Halogens + Alkanes (halothane replaces a hydrogen molecule): formed to replace cyclopropane (+ less fires) no longer used due to hepatotoxicity + cardiac depression
49
What kind of bonds do benzene rings typically have?
unstable double bonds
50
What structure in arenes cause the (aromatic) property?
Benzene ring
51
Why should Benzene be used with caution?
Toxic in both vapor and liquid forms, long-term effects: liver damage & cancer
52
Alcohols contain a ____ group.
-OH (hydroxyl) group, bonded to a tetrahedral carbon atom (carbon w/ single bonds to 4 atoms)
53
What does "R" represent?
a simple Carbon-Hydrogen bond/used to simplify drawing
54
For an alcohol to be water soluble, how many carbons can be present in the "R" group?
3 or less carbons
55
What allows the alcohol to form a bond in water, becoming soluble?
The negative charge of the -OH hydroxyl group allows a bond with the hydrogens, thus allowing solublility
56
What are the effects of an increased concentration of carbons in the "R" group of an alcohol?
Alcohols are only soluble in water with *small* -OH chains, thus when the R chain becomes longer, the percentage of “R” in the molecule increases, and the percentage of “OH” in the molecule decreases. This reduces the interaction of R-OH with water.
57
What factor classifies alcohols?
number of carbons bonded to the hydroxyl group
primary, secondary, and tertiary
58
How are hydroxyl groups (-OH) used in the body?
Enzymes (alcohols) in the liver attach a hydroxyl group to a highly lipid soluble molecule, thus allowing it to become polar/water soluble to be excreted in the urine and bile.
59
Cholesterol is considered a:
Unsaturated alcohol due to double bonds w/ carbon- causing it to be NON polar/not soluble in water bc too many carbons
60
What are two major uses for cholesterol in the body?
Allows the cell wall membrane to have a bit of rigidity, used in forming endogenous steroids
61
Methane is an example of an ________ and is used as:
toxic, simple alcohol used as an insecticide or fuel source.
62
Amines & Amides are formed by ____ and ____ molecules which makes a ______.
Carbon, Nitrogen; Amino group
63
What classifies Amines as primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary?
How many bonds nitrogen can form with carbons (1-4)
64
What is a unique characteristic of Amines?
When an amine has 1-3 carbons it has a lone pair of electrons that allows it to remain neutral, BUT when a 4th carbon joins, it must donate an electron which gives the molecule an overall positive charge
65
What medications are examples of Amines?
Atropine: tertiary amine
Glycopyrrolate: quaternary amine
*antimuscarinics that block acetylcholine*
66
What's the main difference between Atropine and Glycopyrrolate?
Overall charge: neutral molecules can cross BBB/cells/placenta, while charged meds do not enter CNS which prevent neuro side effects.
67
Which antimuscarinic is charged and why does this matter?
Glycopyrrolate, quaternary amine is charged which prevents crossing of BBB/placenta, preventing neurological effects
68
What's the difference between Amides and Amines?
While amides still are made of carbon/nitrogen bonds, they carbon is **Double bonded** to an oxygen = carbonyl group
69
What is the most biologically important Amide?
Proteins
70
What elements form a carbonyl group and what functional group contains this?
carbon and oxygen; Amides
71
What functional group contains a Carboxyl group (-COOH) and what 2 things make a carboxyl group?
Carboxylic acids, it is the combination of carbonyl group (C=O) (amide) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) (alcohol)
72
What is an amidation reaction and why is it important?
Carboxylic acid (-COOH) + Amine (CN) = Amide
Important because this reaction is used to link amino acids together to form proteins (h2O is a byproduct)
73
What reaction is used to form proteins?
Amidation
74
Which 4 functional groups contain a Carbonyl group?
Aldehydes and ketones
Carboxylic Acids and Amides
75
Which two functional groups have strong odors?
ketones (aldehydes) and benzene rings (amine)
76
What two functional groups are in amino acids?
Carboxylic acid (-COOH) and Amine (C=O)
77
What occurs in a condensation reaction between amino acids?
h2o leaves, resulting in a peptide bond between the amino acids- forming a chain
78
A chain of amino acids forms a _____ and is considered a ________ chain.
Peptide, poly-peptide (primary structure of the protein)
79
What is considered the primary structure of a protein?
the polypeptide chain
80
What is the purpose of the "R's" on the polypeptide chain?
They form unique structures off the poly-peptide chain that interact with those of other chains which forms secondary and tertiary structures
81
What occurs when two poly-peptide chains and their tertiary structure come together? What does this become?
This bonding forms a Macro- protein molecule- quaternary structure
82
What is a quaternary protein structure?
formed when two poly-peptide chains and their tertiary structures come together to form a macro molecule
83
A peptide bond is a ______ bond between two ______.
Covalent, amino acids
84
Aldehydes & Ketones contain what group and what is the difference between the two?
Carbonyl group (C=O)
Aldehyde : C=O + hydrogen
Ketone: C=O + 2 carbons
85
What are ketones and aldehydes commonly used for?
K: perfume, flavoring
A: fixative/preservative
86
How does formaldehyde work?
readily links proteins to others/DNA
87
What is Cinnamaldehyde?
Cinnamon derivative that gives taste/smell- can also be used for healing properties
88
Why are ketones important in biochemistry?
Ketones can be used as an alternative fuel source when lacking glucose which forces the body to break down fats for energy
89
Why can the "Keto" diet be dangerous?
Ketone metabolism forms acetone, acetoacetate, and 3-hydroxybutyrate in the liver which leads to ketoACIDOSIS
90
Why are ESTERs an important functional group in anesthesia?
Local anesthetics belong <3
91
What is another name for Esters and why?
Carboxylic esters, they're derived from Carboxylic acid, but the H is replaced w a carbon (-COOR, or -CO2R)
92
Local Anesthetics are usually made from _____ or ______ groups.
Ethers or Amines
intermediate bond determines
92
What is the typical structure of a local anesthetic?
Aromatic group: lipophilic
Intermediate bond: Ester/Amine
Tertiary amine: hydrophilic
93
How to remember which locals belong to which class?
2 I's: Amides
1 I: Esters
(each class has different properties
94
What functional group is used to form inhaled anesthetics?
Ethers: 1 oxygen + 2 carbons (COC)
95
What was the first ether used, when, and where?
Diethyl ether, 10/16/1846, ether dome Mass Gen, Boston (dentistry)
96
Why is Diethyl ether no longer used?
extremely flammable and irritating
97
What are the most commonly inhaled anesthetics, today?
Halogenated Ethers: Sevoflurane, Isoflurane, and Desflurane
Like halothane, hydrogen was replaced with halogens such as chlorine and fluorine
98
Which functional groups have a sulfhydryl group (-SH)?
Thiols & Sulfides
groups is bonded with a tetrahedral carbon
99
What is the most common reaction that occurs with thiols?
Oxidation into disulfide: very strong covalent bond between two sulfurs (important for proteins)
100
Which common amino acid contains a sulfhydryl group?
Cysteine (very strong links when present in peptide chain and side chain interactions reversible/ionic bonds[3-D formation])
101
What are the notable physical properties of thiols & sulfides?
the smell: rotten egg, skunk, sewage
non-polar covalent
102
What is Chirality?
an object being different than its mirror image
must have right and left handed versions bc they are different molecules
103
What does it mean if an object is *Achiral*?
It means the object and its mirror image can be superimposed on each other and are the SAME molecule
104
What are isomers?
molecules that contain the same molecules and number of molecules, they're just arranged differently in space
105
What is a Constitutional (structural) isomer?
same arrangement of the same atoms of a molecule with different bonding
106
What is a stereoisomer?
same formula and arrangement with a different 3D orientation
further defined into chiral and achiral
107
What is required for a molecule to be *Chiral*?
must contain +1 stereocenters (Chiral center) meaning the atom has 3-4 different attachment points
108
Chiral compounds can be further defined as:
Enantiomers and Diastereiomers
109
What are Diastereomers?
compounds with same formula and sequence of bonds that are not superimposable or mirror images of each other
110
What are Enantiomers?
a type of stereoisomer that is not superimposable but they are mirror images
these are different molecules that have the same properties apart from how they interact with other chirals
111
What is a racemic mixture?
50/50 mixture of R and L enantiomers (50% of drugs are supplied this way) they have different reactions, metabolisms, side effects physiologically
112
What is Nomenclature?
names for configuration around the stereocenter
R: Right handed, Rectus
S: Left-handed, Sinister
113
What is Optical Activity of enantiomers?
*Dextrorotatory* rotates light clockwise while *Levorotatory* rotates light counter clockwise
114
What's the difference between glucose and dextrose?
its the same moleculary, just named with a d because there is a l version too, it just cannot be metabolized/used at the cellular level. a silly nomenclature thing
115
Why is levalbuterol some time used rather than albuterol?
less side effects of tachycardia
116
What is Biochemistry defined as?
Chemistry of living things
117
What are the main 4 molecules studied in biochemistry?
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
118
Proteins are polymers of:
Amino acids
119
What is the function of lipids?
"fuels" that support biological reactions such as metabolism
120
What is the purpose of Nucleic acids?
sugar polymers used to assist in the formation of DNA and RNA which are needed for transcription/translation of amino acids, and thus protein synthesis. these proteins are then used to form genes/genetics/mutations
121
Why is Organic Chemistry needed to understand Biochemistry?
All the major molecules have specific functional groups that cause them to have certain properties/characteristics
122
What is the abbreviation for carbohydrates?
CHO: they contain a variety of carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens
123
C6H12O6 is the chemical makeup of what carbohydrate?
Glucose
124
what functional groups are in carbohydrates?
ketone or aldehyde carbonyls and alcohol hydroxyl groups
125
What is the clinical significance regarding different enantiomers of a molecule?
(R) and (L) enantiomers can have similar effects but have more/less preferred side effects, metabolism, etc. that make the use of a mixture beneficial rather than a pure substance.
126
What is an example of a *polyalcoholaldehyde*?
Ketone (connected and branched in may different ways)
127
Whats an example of a monosaccharide?
a simple sugar such as glucose (6 carbons), ribose, or deoxyribose (5 carbons)
128
Whats an example of a *Disaccharide*?
Lactose (2 sugars linked via glycolytic bond)
128
What's an example of an oligosaccharide?
Glycogen, other starches
129
What is the structure of glucose in an aqueous solution?
constantly transforming from a ring to linear continually, most frequently seen in ring formation
130
Why does glucose and fructose technically have a "D" in front of the name?
It is the only type of sugar that can be used by the body. the (L) enantiomer cannot be broken down at a cellular level.
131
D-glucose can be further divided into:
Alpha D-glucose and Beta D-glucose, transforms into the ring structure then into the other form; then back and forth
132
What change prevents glucose from freely changing from Alpha to Beta forms?
Attachment of a polysaccharide
starches/glycogen: alpha lock while cellulose: beta locks
133
T/F lipids are polar/water soluble
FALSE
134
Which function group does propofol contain?
Phenols which are similar to alcohols, but have a ROH structure where the R represents a Benzene ring instead of the alkyl group in alcohols
135
What are the roles of Lipids in the body?
energy storage, component of membranes, hormone/steroids, and cell signaling pathways
136
What are the 5 classes of lipids?
1. Free fatty acids
2. Triacylglycerols
3. Phospholipids
4.Glycolipids
5. Steroids
137
What is the simplest lipid that is typically used as a main fuel source?
Free fatty acids (produces more ATP) unbranched carboxylic acid w/ variations in length/saturation (usually 10-20 carbons)
138
What is the *storage* form of fatty acid?
Triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides)
139
What type of lipids are attached to a phosphate group and are normally found in cell membranes?
Phospholipids
140
What type of lipids are attached to a carbohydrate and are normally found in cell membranes?
Glycolipids
141
What type of lipids are polycyclic hydrocarbons that can function as hormones or membrane components?
Steroids
142
Unsaturation in fatty acids is caused by:
H=C (double bonds between hydrogen and carbon)
143
What type of unsaturated fatty acid is more common: cis-isomer or trans-isomer?
Cis-isomer: Hydrogens on same side (bend in chain), Trans-isomer: opposite sides allowing it to still pack together closely which accounts for it's physical properties
144
Can unsaturated fatty acids have greater than one double bond?
Yes, this is called a poly-unsaturated fat rather than a (mono-unsaturated
145
T/F Fatty acids normally have an even # of carbons
True, because the body metabolizes/breaks down two at a time
146
What are triglycerides made of?
Tri-esters of glycerol with a long carboxylic acid chain (fatty acid) (mono and di are less common but do exist)
147
Triglycerides have a ______ backbone and three _____ ____ chains.
Glycerol, fatty acid
148
What is the process of Sapification?
it is the addition of a base to fats/oils to form glycerol in a mixture of fatty acid salts
149
What type of fatty acids are found in adipose cells?
Triglycerides
150
Phospholipids consist of a _____ head and a _____ tail.
polar, nonpolar
151
How do phospholipids form a lipid bilayer?
the polar heads face the aqueous environment on both sides (inside and outside), while the fatty acid tails meet in the middle, forming the membrane
152
What are the 4 components of a phospholipid?
1. Alcohol
2. Phosphate (+ head)
3. Glycerol backbone
4. nonpolar fatty acid tail (2)
153
Apart from structure and protection, how else does the cell membrane function?
selective transport for nutrients and waste products
154
Are phospholipid fatty acids saturated or unsaturated?
unsaturated so they are more "fluid-like", not packing too closely which would form a rigid membrane
155
How do glycolipids function?
usually are bound to cells, acting like receptors or assist with cell-to-cell communication/signal transduction
156
What is the structure and function of steroids?
polycyclic hydrocarbons; hormones or membrane components (cholesterol)
157
What is the structure of steroids/cholesterol?
3 six-sided rings and a five-sided ring
158
What is the most abundant steroid and it's functions?
cholesterol- cell membrane, hormone synthesis, and synthesis of bile salts
159
What is arguably the most important biological compound?
Proteins due to having many functions physiologically
160
What are the two major subtypes of proteins?
Globular: soluble in water, nonstructural
Fibrous: insoluble in water, structural functions
161
________ are the structural building blocks of proteins
amino acids
162
How many different amino acids are there?
about 20. they consist of a central carbon bonded to an amino, carboxyl, hydrogen, and "R" side chain
163
How are amino acids linked together?
Peptide bonds: hydrophobic/nonpolar, hydrophilic/polar, positively charged, or negatively charged
164
What's the difference between essential and nonessential amino acids?
non-essential: produced by body
essential: diet
165
What is the substituent of an amino acid?
the side chain that gives them different characteristics and assist in 3-D formation via interactions with other proteins
166
What are the 4 main structures of proteins?
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary
167
What is the primary structure of a protein?
chain of amino acids
168
What is the secondary protein structure?
folding chain into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
169
What is the tertiary protein structure?
the 3-D folding pattern caused by side chain interactions
170
What is the Quaternary protein structure?
a protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
171
A short chain of amino acids is defined as a _____ and usually consists of ___-___ amino acids
peptide, 10-20 (but up to 50)
172
A long chain of amino acids is defined as a _____ and usually consists of _____ amino acids
Protein, 100's
(made of polypeptides (several peptides))
173
What bonds occur in side chain interactions?
many weak bonds such as ionic, hydrogen, hydrophobic, and van der wal interactions that are strong together
174
What type of bond allows primary structures to form secondary protein structures?
Hydrogen bonding (initially with peptide)
175
A G-protein coupled receptor is an example of a ________ protein structure
Tertiary, alpha helices have been folded many times to form a globular protein that sits on the cell membrane
176
T/F for protein structure to be functional, they must be quaternary structures.
FALSE, tertiary are also functional
177
______ bonds between _____ groups cause _____ structures to fold into 3-D proteins
Covalent, Sulfhydro, tertiary
178
Hemoglobin is an example of a _______ protein structure
Quaternary (more than one amino acid chain)
179
Hemoglobin has ____ _____ structural proteins that can carry one O2 molecule each
4, tertiary
(each RBC contains 300 million hemoglobin molecules)
180
________ is frequently mentioned when discussing diet and exercise which is the:
Metabolism, break down of food and drink into energy
181
*Biochemistry* metabolism is further defined as:
total amount of chemical reactions needed to maintain healthy operation of cells for all biological processes
182
Metabolic pathways produce high *potential* energy molecules such as:
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), which is technically a nucleotide
183
How are carbohydrates and triglycerides metabolized into energy for the body?
chemical reactions:
glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
Glycogenesis & glycogenolysis, the citric acid cycle (Kreb's), oxidative phosphorylation & electron transport chain, Fatty acid/lipid metabolism & Beta Oxidation, Amino acid synthesis/degradation and the urea cycle
184
When are proteins broken down?
Proteins *can* be broken down and used as an energy source during a starvation state which is not preferred but are routinely broken down during growth, regeneration, and catabolism
185
When there is an acute need for glucose, what happens when it enters the cell?
it immediately undergoes glycolysis > pyruvate > acetyl Co-A which then enters the Krebs cycle
186
What molecule the is a derivative of glucose is able to enter the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl Co-A
187
T/F the Krebs cycle requires oxygen
False, only the Oxidative Phosphorylation/electron transport chain needs oxygen because it is the FINAL electron receptor. this is there the majority of ATP is produced during glucose metabolism
188
Which process of glucose metabolism is considered "cellular respiration"
Oxidative Phosphorylation, Electron Transport Chain
189
How many molecules of ATP are produced via the entire process of metabolizing one molecule of glucose? (in the presence of oxygen)
32 total: 2 glycolysis, 2 krebs, 28 ETC
190
Where does the electron transport chain reaction occur in the cell?
inner folds of the mitochondria
191
What occurs if there IS sufficient glucose in the cell when more glucose enters?
It is stored: glycogenesis or it is used via Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)
192
What occurs during the Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)
forms ribosugars for DNA/RNA and NADPH
193
What is NADPH?
a molecule used to build other molecules and/or detoxify intracellular reactive species of oxygens (antioxidant)
194
What is glycolysis and how many ATP are formed during this process?
break down of glucose, 2 ATP. occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
195
What is gluconeogenesis and where does it occur?
The formation of glucose from a noncarbohydrate molecule (amino acids, lipids, lactate). occurs in the liver
196
What organ can only use glucose for energy?
Brain
197
What is glycogenesis?
creation of the stored form of glucose "glycogen"
198
What occurs during Glycogenolysis?
glycogen is broken back down into glucose
199
Where in the cell is pyruvate converted into acetyl coa?
in the mitochondria
200
What occurs during the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)? How much ATP is produced?
a series of Redo (reduction/oxidation) reactions which is the addition/removal of electrons that release *potential* energy, 2 ATP
201
What are the 2 important byproducts of the Krebs cycle that go to the electron transport chain?
FADH/NADH, they have extra electrons
202
What structures cause oxidative phosphorylation to occur?
4 protein complexes (globular), that couples redox reactions, FADH/NADH power the chain, then the ATP synthase catalyses the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
203
Which is more complicated: lipid or glucose metabolism?
lipid metabolism: triglycerides are broken down into individual fatty acids during lipolysis then their byproducts enter Beta Oxidation
204
Which process creates more acetyl coa, lipid or glucose metabolism?
lipid, it is created via Beta Oxidation
205
How much ATP is produced via lipid metabolism?
it depends on the length of the fatty acid chain/number of carbons but can be >120 ATP
206
Lipids via Beta Oxidation are the primary energy source for:
Heart
207
How are ketones formed during metabolism?
they are a byproduct of beta oxidation but can be used as energy for the brain during starvation: ketone > acetyl coa > krebs > ETC
208
Where do fatty acids go to undergo beta oxidation?
mitochondria of the liver
209
What is the urea cycle?
Ammonia is a (toxic) byproduct of amino acid/protein metabolism, it is then broken down into urea by the liver to be then excreted by the kidneys
210
What are nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA which are made up of nucleotides
211
What 3 molecules/compounds form nucleotides?
1. phosphate
2. nitrogen
3. sugar (ribose & deoxyribose)
212
What are the DNA nitrogenous bases (and their pairs)?
Cytosine
Thymine
Adenine
Guanine
213
What is the difference in nucleotides between DNA and RNA?
in RNA, Uracil replaces Thymine
the nucleotides also arent bonded in RNA as they are in DNA structures (RNA can bind to and fold on self)
214
T/F nucleotides are only used to form nucleic acids
FALSE: ATP, major cellular energy source is a nucleotide
cAMP, a cell-to-cell messenger is also a nucleotide
215
What are the 3 particles that form ATP?
Adenine
Ribose ring
Phosphate (3)
216
Which reaction releases more energy ATP > ADP or ADP > AMP?
ATP > ADP, removal of the second phosphate group releases much less energy than the first
217
How is cAMP formed?
AMP bonds with oxygen and carbon, forming a ring which is the "cyclic" portion of the molecule, phosphodiesterase prevents this formation for occuring (PDE's break down to ^ cAMP)
218
Adenine is always paired with:
Thymine/Uracil
219
Guanine is always paired with:
Cytosine
220
How are nucleotide paired bonded and why are they specific to each other?
hydrogen bonds. A/T/U can form 2 bonds, while G/C can form 3
221
What forms the phosphate deoxyribose "backbone"?
formation of nucleotide pairs
222
How much DNA is in each cell?
3 billion base pairs
223
How does so much DNA fit in a tiny cell?
it is tightly packed to histones that pack tightly to other histones that form chromosomes
224
What is a histone?
a protein structure that organizes genetic material
225
What occurs during DNA replication?
DNA replicates self prior to division. Helicase unzips strand while DNA polymerase frees nucleotides, forming a chain = 2 copies of same info
226
How does DNA polymerase work?
slides down unzipped (thx 2 helicase) DNA strand and removes nucleotides, inserting them into a chain that copies the information
227
What is the first step to protein transcription?
gene expression, occurs in the cytoplasm
228
What occurs after gene expression?
the copied section of DNA sequences makes mRNA which then finds a Ribosome
229
What does a ribosome do with a section of mRNA?
the mRNA is then copied with tRNA which can hold an amino acid to link and form a protein chain
230
What is the protein chain formed by tRNA then considered?
a primary protein structure !!
231
What is the difference between ribose and deoxyribose?
ribose has an extra hydroxyl group
232
What is a codon?
specific bases needed for a specific amino acid, used by tRNA to form protein chain
233
What 3 structures can be produced by RNA?
mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA
234
Translation is also known as ______ ________ and occurs when the mRNA attaches to the _____ (Ribosome)
Protein synthesis, rRNA
235
What is the role of the ribosome in protein synthesis?
the mRNA moves through the ribosome and tRNA enters to identify base matches, the tRNA connects the matches of mRNA to form an amino acid chain
236
What environmental factors can cause a DNA mutation?
radiation, carcinogens, and reactive oxygens
237
What are the two ways the body tries to fix DNA mutations?
Homologous recombination: uses another copy of DNA to repair, usually successful
Non-homologous end joining: no other DNA available- attempts to join ends to fix mutation
238
Why is non-homologous end joining less effective?
The order of nucleotide pairs pairs are usually disrupted by this method which can form damaged or non functional amino acids and proteins (pauses replication & programs apoptosis)
239
What occurs when genetic mutations are replicated into gamete cells?
the offspring carries the gene mutation
240
Why do polymorphisms matter?
they only occur in about 1% of the population but cause an alteration in response to medications: this can rationalize why people have different reactions to medications/doses
241
What is a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP/SNV)
change in amino acid codon, which occurs in just one pair and codes for a different amino acid but doesnt always change the function of the protein unless in a critical location (like folding)
242
what is the deletion of several nucleotides (up to an entire chromosome) called in polymorphisms?
Insertion/deletion
can be found in an entire population or be confined to face/sex/gender
243
What is the process of producing new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate precursors?
Gluconeogenesis
244
What cellular process requires oxygen to produce ATP?
Oxidative Phosphorylation
245
Why do phospholipids form bilayers in cell membranes?
They have polar head and nonpolar tails
