October 19th: Sustainable Urban Transport Flashcards
Accessibility definition
the ease of reaching desired destinations
- population based: % of pop. within 5 minute walk from bus stop
- location based: % of jobs accessible from location within 30 minutes of driving
Example: Manhattan (high accessibility, high density, even though not traveling fast accessibility is high)
Mobility definition
the ease of traveling through a transport network
- vehicles per hour
- Average time lost in gridlock
Example: speeds, few destinations)
What is NOT a solution proposed by Lewis Mumford (in 1958) to deal with urban transport issues?
Increasing the capacity of urban roads
What are some solutions proposed by Lewis Mumford in his 1958 essay
Smaller cars
Planning for pedestrians
Rebuild and expand public transport
Regional governments
- able to make decisions over a wider area of land (as opposed to trying to coordinate with multiple different city and regional governments
Mortgage reform
- make it more affordable to live downtown or in dense urban centers
How did U.S. highways develop?
1930s, when General Motors, AAA, and other industry groups formed the National Highway
Users Conference to influence federal transportation policy.
- they were the ones making decisions about highways and car laws
Had to convince public (and politicians) of the necessity of roads as a public
good
- most people did not have cars; they had to convince public and governments that we need systems to accommodate more cars (future is privately owned vehicles. Not constrained by speed and lack of accessibility. Way to freedom.)
The plan’s key contributors included members of the auto industry (including General Motors CEO Charles Erwin Wilson) and highway engineers. Curiously, urban planners were absent — the profession barely existed at the time
Technocratic vision triumphed – public and policy makers were seduced by the scientific and mathematical expertise
Highway engineers dominated the decision-making. They were trained to design without much consideration for how a highway might impact urban fabric — they were worried about the most efficient way of moving people from A to B
As a result, the official plans dictated that highways cut directly through the core of virtually every major city in order to bring commuters from newly growing suburbs in and out.
- Cities were forced to agree or be left out
What are some consequences of highway developments?
Triple convergence
Braess’ Paradox
Induced demand
Explain triple convergence (Downs-Thompson Paradox)
Three types of convergence occur on the “improved” expressway:
1) Spatial convergence: many drivers who formerly used alternative routes during peak
hours switch to the improved expressway
2) Time convergence: many drivers who formerly traveled just before or after the peak hours start traveling during those hours
3) Modal convergence: some commuters who used to take public transportation during
peak hours now switch to driving, since it has become faster
What came along with automobility
Physical and infrastructure changes
Social norms, laws, enforcement, media, values
Large-scale changes in society
Early legal precedents favored pedestrians
Streets were for all modes, plus delivery, utilities, children playing etc.
Drivers were perceived by public, media, law enforcement etc. as intruders in urban space
Auto industry had to convince public, politicians of the importance and inevitability of the emergence of cars.
Changing the ‘ownership’ of streets was foundational in altering existing social norms.
- Example: jaywalking became an enforceable crime (blaming pedestrians instead of drivers)
How did car advocates promote safety?
Car advocates successfully turned
‘accident’ and fatality figures into
arguments for more (and safer)
highways.
Pedestrians and cyclists are often referred to as ‘vulnerable road users’
(Obviously) the bulk of force and therefore injury is felt by the unprotected street users
Speed and mass of vehicles is key factor (and these have been increasing….)
- cars are getting safer for the people driving them (safer for the drivers)
-less safe for cyclists and pedestrians
What is behind countries differences in modes of transportation rates (according to Pucher)?
Differences in travel behaviour due to differences in public policies
Public policies play a more important role than underlying social or cultural preferences in the evolution of transportation systems and travel behaviour
According to Pucher’s study, is there a correlation between income and modal split?
No
What is Pucher’s conclusion on modal split?
Not simply the results of consumer sovereignty or of independent, individual decision making that reveals supposedly innate preferences for mode of travel and way of life
For the vast majority of americans, the alternative to the automobile is immobility
Almost all americans say that they prefer the auto and buy their own as soon as they can afford to
What is the problem with efficiency in cars (cleaner cars)?
Even “clean” cares use space, pose dangers to others, cause congestion, etc.
Currently, EVs are heavier than ICE cars (implications for safety, road wear and tear)
PM 2.5 is also generated from tires and braking (not just exhaust)
Environmental benefits with electric and autonomous vehicles can only be realized when:
- individual ownership reduces
- impacts on land use, space devoted to cars
- reduce fossil fuel use elsewhere
- congestion won’t be reduced by making mobility easier on its own (need other land use and behavioural changes)
- need to be aware of other unintended consequences (more or less social contact, physical activity, etc.)
-freight, delivery, transit and other neceassry trips are grat candidates for shift from fossil fuel to EV - very important labour and environmental aspects related to resource extraction for EV batteries
What are some issues related to electric cars?
Require an 87,000% increase in supply of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined with recycling covering part of the demand in future. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain to significant impact on climate and environment as result of such a large increase in mining operations.
Lithium-ion batteries contain metals such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese, which are toxic and can contaminate water supplies and ecosystems if they leach out of landfills.
Lithium is a finite, non-renewable resource – much of it located in rural and ecologically diverse and rich areas
