Odds and Ends Flashcards

Question

Naloxone

Answer 1

**Naloxone** is a medicine that rapidly reverses an opioid overdose. It is an opioid antagonist. This means that it attaches to opioid receptors and reverses and blocks the effects of other opioids. Naloxone can quickly restore normal breathing to a person if their breathing has slowed or stopped because of an opioid overdose. In addition, **Naloxone** has been shown to block the action of pain-lowering endorphins the body produces naturally. These endorphins likely operate on the same opioid receptors that naloxone blocks.

Answer 2

**Jean Piaget** proposed the earliest comprehensive account of object concept development in the 1930s. Piaget believed that children gradually construct the concept over the first two years of life in a predictable and universal series of six stages. From birth to three or four months (Stages 1 and 2), infants do not truly perceive objects; they merely recognize stimulation associated with their own subjective experience, such as the reaction of pleasure connected with the sight of a caregiver or an attractive toy. By two months, infants turn to look at an object that makes a sound, demonstrating an integration of vision and hearing that gives objects greater solidity. Between four and eight months (Stage 3), infants noticeably progress toward acquiring the object concept. For example, infants visually or manually follow the path of an object that they drop and return to an object after dropping it out of sight. They also retrieve partially hidden objects and uncover their own faces in order to see, as in games of peek-aboo. From eight to twelve months (Stage 4), infants search for a completely hidden object and generalize their search to different objects and different covers or barriers. They do not, however, generalize to different locations. Infants who find a hidden toy in one location continue to search for it there even after seeing the toy hidden in a new location. Between twelve and eighteen months (Stage 5), infants incorporate location information into their object knowledge. They track the hidden object to its most recent hiding location, provided they see the toy hidden there (visible displacement). However, from eighteen to twenty-four months (Stage 6), infants find the hidden object in a new location even without seeing it hidden there (invisible displacement). According to Piaget, this behavior demonstrates that infants fully acquire the object concept between eighteen and twenty-four months. Although the behaviors in Piaget's manual search tasks are highly replicable, many researchers disagree with his interpretations. When tasks are simplified, infants appear sensitive to hidden objects much earlier than Piaget proposed.

Answer 3

In classical conditioning, **overshadowing** refers to a decrease in conditioning with one conditioned stimulus because of the presence of another conditioned stimulus. Usually a stronger stimulus will overshadow a weaker stimulus.

Answer 4

**Conditioned suppression** is a phenomenon that occurs during an operant performance test when a conditioned response to a positive stimulus is reduced by another stimulus that is associated with an aversive stimulus. For example, a rat may be trained to press a lever to receive food. During this procedure, the rat is occasionally exposed to a series of brief electric shocks that are preceded by a tone (the conditioned stimulus). As a result, when the rat subsequently hears the tone alone, its rate of lever pressing is reduced. Conditioned suppression is also used to study classical conditioning.

Answer 5

**Reinstatement following extinction** is the return of a response to an extinguished conditioned stimulus due to exposure to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, a person who gets a headache from using earbuds may develop an aversion to using them. This aversion may become extinguished after the person tries using earbuds again a few times without getting a headache. However, if the person then gets a headache (for any reason), the aversive response to using earbuds may return (or be reinstated).

Answer 6

**Spatial summation** is a neural mechanism in which an impulse is propagated by two or more postsynaptic potentials occurring simultaneously at different synapses on the same neuron, when the discharge of a single synapse would not be sufficient to activate the neuron. **Temporal summation** is a neural mechanism in which an impulse is propagated by two successive postsynaptic potentials (PSPs), neither of which alone is of sufficient intensity to cause a response. The partial depolarization caused by the first PSP continues for a few milliseconds and is able, with the additive effect of the second PSP, to produce an above-threshold depolarization sufficient to elicit an action potential.

Answer 7

**Neuromodulation** is technology that acts directly upon nerves. It is the alteration—or modulation—of nerve activity by delivering electrical or pharmaceutical agents directly to a target area.

Answer 8

**Spreading depression** is a propagating wave of silence in neuronal activity accompanied by a relatively large negative electric potential. Spreading depression occurs in regions of gray matter, including the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. It may occur spontaneously or be evoked by intense local electrical, chemical, or mechanical stimuli. Cortical spreading depression is related to migraine headaches.

Answer 9

**Relational aggression** is behavior that manipulates or damages relationships between individuals or groups, such as bullying, gossiping, and humiliation. Research on children's social behavior shows that relative to young adolescent boys, young adolescent girls exhibit more relational aggression.

Answer 10

**Instrumental aggression** is _proactive_ and involves an action carried out principally to achieve another goal, such as acquiring a desired resource. **Affective aggression** is _reactive_ and involves an emotional response that tends to be targeted toward the perceived source of the distress but may be displaced onto other people or objects if the disturbing agent cannot be attacked.

Answer 11

**Direct aggression** is aggressive behavior directed toward the source of frustration or anger. **Displaced aggression** is the direction of hostility away from the source of frustration or anger and toward either the self or a different entity. Displaced aggression may occur, for example, when circumstances preclude direct confrontation with the responsible entity because it is perceived as too powerful to attack without fear of reprisal. Compare direct aggression.

Answer 12

**Aggression** is behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically. It can be distinguished from anger in that anger is oriented at overcoming the target but not necessarily through harm or destruction. When such behavior is purposively performed with the primary goal of intentional injury or destruction, it is termed **hostile aggression**. Other types of aggression are less deliberately damaging and may be **instrumentally motivated** (proactive) or **affectively motivated** (reactive).

Answer 13

A **mental representation** is a hypothetical entity that is presumed to stand for a perception, thought, memory, or the like during cognitive operations. For example, when doing mental arithmetic, one presumably operates on mental representations that correspond to digits and numerical operators; when one imagines looking at the reverse side of an object, one presumably operates on a mental representation of that object; when one repeats a phone number aloud while dialing it, one presumably operates on mental representations of the names of the digits. However, there is no consensus yet as to what mental representations might be. Suppose a child has just developed the ability to lie with the intention of deceiving another person. This new ability is probably based most directly on a change in the child's knowledge about mental representations.

Answer 14

A **transitive inference task** is a type of task used to assess children’s ability to make transitive inferences, that is, to infer the relationship between two concepts or objects based on earlier acquired information. In one example, a series of sticks is arranged in order of increasing length (e.g., A, B, C, D, E); if children know that D \> C and C \> B, they will make a correct transitive inference if they state that D \> B, even though they have never seen these two sticks together.

Answer 15

**Hypersomnolence** is a condition where a person experiences significant episodes of sleepiness, even after having 7 hours or more of quality sleep.

Answer 16

**Circadian rhythm sleep disorders** involve either difficulty falling asleep, waking up during the sleep cycle, or waking up too early and being unable to fall back to sleep. Treatment options include bright light therapy, medications, and behavioral therapy.

Answer 17

**Nightmare disorder** is when nightmares happen often, cause distress, disrupt sleep, cause problems with daytime functioning or create fear of going to sleep. Nightmare disorder is referred to by doctors as a **parasomnia** — a type of sleep disorder that involves undesirable experiences that occur while you're falling asleep, during sleep or when you're waking up. Nightmares usually occur during the stage of sleep known as **rapid eye movement** (**REM**) sleep. The exact cause of nightmares is not known.

Answer 18

**Arousal disorders** are common in children. Arousal does not mean that the child wakes-up. The “arousal” is a partial arousal usually from “deep” sleep also called “slow wave sleep”. Most commonly the child transitions from deep sleep to a mixture of very light sleep and/or partial wakefulness. This stage shift will commonly lead to a confusional state or a “confusional arousal”. During such an episode, the child presents features suggestive of being simultaneously awake and asleep. On one hand, the child may appear to be alert by crying very loudly, moving, or even running. However, the child simultaneously appears to be disoriented, and confused. They can be relatively unresponsive to solicitations from parents as well as from other environmental challenges. There is usually little or no recall of the arousal or any event that may have occurred during the episode the next morning or even 10 to 30 minutes later if the child is to awaken completely.

Answer 19

* **Central executive** * 3 slave systems * **Visuo-spatial sketchpad**: responsible for dealing with visual and spatial information * **Visual cache** stores visual data such as shape and color * **Inner scribe** records the arrangements of objects and transfers information to the central executive * **Phonological loop**: temporary storage system for auditory information * **Phonological store** (inner ear) stores what you hear * **Articulatory process** (inner voice) rehearses words to keep them in working memory as needed * **Episodic buffer**: mediator between working memory and longterm memory

Answer 20

People are able to complete two tasks simultaneously if they are using different processing systems. However, it becomes difficult to complete two tasks at the same time if they use the same system.

Answer 21

Provides evidence that the slave systems of Haddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Theory are not only operationally distinct, but anatomically separate, too. KF experienced brain damage as a result of a motorcycle accident, but whilst his verbal memory was impaired, his ability to recall and learn visual information was largely unaffected.

Answer 22

**Excitation-transfer theory** is the theory that emotional responses can be intensified by arousal from other stimuli not directly related to the stimulus that originally provoked the response. According to this theory, when a person becomes aroused physiologically, there is a subsequent period of time when the person will experience a state of residual arousal yet be unaware of it. If additional stimuli are encountered during this time, the individual may mistakenly ascribe his or her residual response from the previous stimuli to those successive stimuli.

Answer 23

**Correspondent inference theory** is a model describing how people form inferences about other people’s stable personality characteristics from observing their behaviors. Correspondence between behaviors and traits is more likely to be inferred if the actor is judged to have acted (a) freely, (b) intentionally, (c) in a way that is unusual for someone in the situation, and (d) in a way that does not usually bring rewards or social approval.

Answer 24

The **focus theory of normative conduct** emphasizes the importance of social normative influence in affecting behavior. A major component of the theory is the distinction between **Injunctive** and **Descriptive** social norms. Injunctive norms specify what is typically approved of, and therefore what ‘ought’ to be done. Descriptive norms refer to what people actually do, and consequently provide information as to what is typical or normal behavior. Both types of norms influence behavior, but do not do so in all situations. A primary tenet of the focus theory of normative conduct is the importance of norm salience in affecting behavior. Norms are in play primarily when they are salient, and people will act in ways that are consistent with socially acceptable behavior only when their attention is _focused_ on the behavior that is occurring or that is commonly accepted.

Answer 25

**Distraction-conflict** is a term used in social psychology. Distraction-conflict is an alternative to the first tenet in Zajonc's theory of social facilitation. This first tenet currently seems to be more widely supported than the distraction-conflict model. Zajonc formulates that the presence of an individual generates arousal, and this arousal facilitates well-learned tasks and inhibits complex tasks. The distraction-conflict model states that "in the presence of others there is a conflict between attending to the person and attending to the task". The distraction-conflict model calls this attentional conflict, and says that it is responsible for the arousal of the subject.

Answer 26

**Social identity theory** is a conceptual perspective on group processes and intergroup relations that assumes that groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify strongly with the group. According to this theory, people tend to favor their ingroup over an outgroup because the former is part of their self-identity. With its emphasis on the importance of group membership for the self, social identity theory contrasts with individualistic analyses of behavior that discount the importance of group identifications.

Answer 27

**Self-affirmation theory** involves the concept that people are motivated to maintain views of themselves as well adapted, moral, competent, stable, and able to control important outcomes. When some aspect of this self-view is challenged, people experience psychological discomfort. They may attempt to reduce this discomfort by directly resolving the inconsistency between the new information and the self, by affirming some other aspect of the self, or both. Self-affirmation theory has been used as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory for explaining some phenomena.

Answer 28

The **self-verification motive** involves the desire to seek information about oneself that confirms one’s chronic self-views, regardless of whether this information is good or bad. This desire is often stronger than the **self-enhancement motive**, wherein people seek favorable information about themselves, or the **self-assessment motive**, wherein people seek accurate information about themselves. People seek self-verification (a) by gravitating toward situations and relationship partners in which they will receive self-confirmation, (b) by striving to elicit self-verifying feedback through their behavior, and (c) by selectively attending to, recalling, and interpreting evaluations in ways that tend to maintain their own views of themselves.

Answer 29

The **self-enhancement motive** is the desire to think well of oneself and to be well regarded by others. This motive causes people to prefer favorable, flattering feedback rather than accurate but possibly unfavorable information about themselves.

Answer 30

The **self-assessment motive** is the desire to gain accurate information about the self. It leads people to seek highly diagnostic feedback (see diagnosticity) and to reject flattery or other bias. Also called **accuracy motive** or **appraisal motive**.

Answer 31

**Diagnosticity** is the informational value of an interaction, event, or feedback for someone seeking self-knowledge. Information with high diagnosticity has clear implications for the self-concept, whereas information with low diagnosticity may be unclear, ambiguous, or inaccurate. The desire for highly diagnostic information about the self is called the **self-assessment motive**.

Answer 32

self-monitoring n. 1. a method used in behavioral management in which individuals keep a record of their behavior (e.g., time spent, form and place of occurrence, feelings during performance), especially in connection with efforts to change or control the self. For example, a therapist may assign a client self-monitoring as homework to encourage better self-regulation by that person. 2. a personality trait reflecting an ability to modify one’s behavior in response to situational pressures, opportunities, and norms. High self-monitors are typically more apt to conform their behavior to the demands of the situation, whereas low self-monitors tend to behave in accord with their internal feelings.

Answer 33

self-awareness n. self-focused attention or knowledge. There has been a continuing controversy over whether nonhuman animals have self-awareness. Evidence of this in animals most often is determined by whether an individual can use a mirror to groom an otherwise unseen spot on its own forehead. A few chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans have passed this test.

Answer 34

**Self-awareness theory** implies any theory of the consequences of focusing attention on the self. Distinctions are sometimes made between subjective self-awareness, arising directly from the observation and experience of oneself as the source of perception and behavior, and objective self-awareness, arising from comparison between the self and (a) the behaviors, attitudes, and traits of others or (b) some perceived standard for social correctness in any one of these areas.

Answer 35

The **false-consensus effect** is the tendency to assume that one’s own opinions, beliefs, attributes, or behaviors are more widely shared than is actually the case. A robustly demonstrated phenomenon, the false-consensus effect is often attributed to a desire to view one’s thoughts and actions as appropriate, normal, and correct. The **false-uniqueness effect** is the tendency to underestimate the extent to which others possess the same beliefs and attributes as oneself or engage in the same behaviors, particularly when these characteristics or behaviors are positive or socially desirable. It is often attributed to a desire to view one’s thoughts and actions as unusual, arising from personal, internal causes.

Answer 36

**Self-serving bias** is the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factors. The self-serving bias is regarded as a form of self-deception designed to maintain high self-esteem. **Group-serving bias** is any one of a number of cognitive tendencies that contribute to an overvaluing of one’s group, particularly the tendency to credit the group for its successes but to blame external factors for its failures. Also called **sociocentric bias**.

Answer 37

**Self-handicapping** is a strategy of creating obstacles to one’s performance, so that future anticipated failure can be blamed on the obstacle rather than on one’s lack of ability. If one succeeds despite the handicap, it brings extra credit or glory to the self. The concept originally was proposed to explain alcohol and drug abuse among seemingly successful individuals.

Answer 38

The **actor-observer effect / bias** refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.

Answer 39

**Universal grammar** (**UG**) is a theoretical linguistic construct positing the existence of a set of rules or grammatical principles that are innate in human beings and underlie most natural languages. The concept is of considerable interest to psycholinguists who study language acquisition and the formation of valid sentences. Research shows that Broca’s area in the brain is selectively activated by languages that meet the criteria for universal grammar.

Answer 40

morphology n. 1. the branch of biology concerned with the forms and structures of organisms. 2. the branch of linguistics that investigates the form and structure of words. It is particularly concerned with the regular patterns of inflection and word formation in a language. With syntax, morphology is one of the two traditional subdivisions of grammar.

Answer 41

**Boundary extension** (**BE**) is a cognitive psychology phenomenon and an error of commission in which people remember more of a scene or boundary than was originally present in the original picture.

Answer 42

geon n. a simple three-dimensional element (e.g., sphere, cube) regarded as a fundamental component in the perception of a more complex object.

Answer 43

subjective / illusory contour an edge or border perceived in an image as a result of the inference of the observer. A common form of a Kanizsa figure contains a triangle with sides that consist of subjective contours.

Answer 44

Mach bands an example of a contrast illusion produced by two or more adjacent rectangular gray stimuli or bands that differ in lightness. The part of the light band that borders the dark band appears to be lighter than the rest of the light band, whereas the part of the dark band along the border between the two bands appears to be darker than the rest of the dark band.

Answer 45

texture gradient the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them.

Answer 46

* **Broadbent's Early Selection Theory**: All the information in your environment goes into your **sensory register**, which briefly registers, or stores, all the sensory information you get. Then this input gets transfered to the **selective filter** right away, which identifies what it's supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics. Everything else gets filtered out, and the selected information gets moved along so that **perceptual processes** can occur. These processes assign meaning to the information. From that point, other cognitive processes can unfold, such as deciding how to respond, etc. Broadbent's theory fails to account for the cocktail party effect, the phenomenon of noticing your own name spoken across a room during a loud party. * **Deutsch and Deutsch Late Selection Theory**: Here, the **selective filter** does its work only after **perceptual processes** have assigned meaning to sensory information. In this version, the selective filter decides what to pass on to conscious awareness. * **Treisman's Attenuation Theory**: Starts with Broadbent's Early Detection Theory, but replaces selective filter with attenuator, whose job it is to weaken, but not eliminate, unprioritized sensory input. However, if the unprioritized information turns out to be important, you can reprioritize your attention by attenuating what previously had been your primary focus. Debate continues as to which theory best represents reality.

Answer 47

In 1978, Johnston and Heinz proposed a broader model in the form of ‘multimode theory,’ which viewed attention as a flexible system that allows selection of a message over others at several different points. Later selection requires more processing, capacity, and effort. According to Johnston and Heinz's multimode theory of attention, it is dangerous to drive an automobile while talking on a cell phone because both talking and driving require attentional resources, and adequate attentional resources may not be allocated to driving.

Answer 48

The **Organizational-Activational Hypothesis** states that steroid hormones (secreted by the adrenal cortex, testes, and ovaries) permanently organize the nervous system during early development, which is reflected in adult male or female typical behaviors. In adulthood, the same steroid hormones activate, modulate, and inhibit these behaviors.

Answer 49

prosopagnosia n. a form of visual agnosia in which the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected. The term was originally limited to impairment following acute brain damage, but a congenital form of the disorder has since been recognized. Prosopagnosia can be distinguished from **prosopamnesia**, which is an abnormal difficulty in remembering faces, even though they are perceived normally: The condition may be congenital or acquired.

Answer 50

transcortical aphasia a general term for an aphasia caused by a lesion outside of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. As a result, the individual will be able to repeat spoken words but will have difficulty producing independent speech or understanding speech. There are three classic forms: **transcortical motor aphasia**, **transcortical sensory aphasia**, and **mixed transcortical aphasia** (i.e., the motor and sensory forms combined).

Answer 51

sensory neglect an inability to attend to sensory information, usually from the left side of the body, as a result of brain injury, most often to the right hemisphere. Also called **perceptual neglect**.

Answer 52

motor neglect underutilization of or failure to use motor functions on one side of the body despite the presence of normal strength, reflexes, and sensibility. It results from damage to various cerebral structures, including the thalamus and frontal and parietal lobes.

Answer 53

blindsight n. the capacity of some individuals with damage to the striate cortex (primary visual cortex or area V1) to detect and even localize visual stimuli presented to the blind portion of the visual field. Discrimination of movement, flicker, wavelength, and orientation may also be present. However, these visual capacities are not accompanied by conscious awareness. The causes of blindsight are the subject of some debate: Because the neural pathway from the lateral geniculate nucleus to the striate cortex is nonfunctional in blindsighted people, it is thought that these capacities are either based on the visual collicular pathway (?) or represent residual vision using surviving striate cortex.

Answer 54

decentration / decentering n. in Piagetian theory, the gradual progression of a child away from egocentrism toward a reality shared with others. Occurring during the concrete operational stage, decentration includes understanding how others perceive the world, knowing in what ways one’s own perceptions differ, and recognizing that people have motivations and feelings different from one’s own. It can also be extended to the ability to consider many aspects of a situation, problem, or object, as reflected, for example, in the child’s grasp of the concept of conservation.

Answer 55

class inclusion the concept that a subordinate class (e.g., dogs) must always be smaller than the superordinate class in which it is contained (e.g., animals). Jean Piaget believed that understanding the concept of class inclusion represented an important developmental step. Children progress from classifications based on personal factors, perceptual features, and common function to classifications based on hierarchical relationships; for example, a monkey is a primate, a mammal, and a vertebrate animal. Children typically learn class inclusion in the **concrete operational stage** (~ 7 – 11).

Answer 56

seriation n. the process of arranging a collection of items in a specific order (series) on the basis of a particular dimension (e.g., size). According to Piagetian theory, this ability is necessary for understanding the concepts of numbers, time, and measurement and is acquired by children during the **concrete operational stage**.

Answer 57

**Gustatory hallucinations** are similar to olfactory hallucinations, but they involve your sense of taste instead of smell. These tastes are often strange or unpleasant. Gustatory hallucinations (often with a metallic taste) are a relatively common symptom for people with epilepsy.

Answer 58

A **command hallucination** is an auditory hallucination that instructs a patient to act in a specific way; these commands can range in seriousness from innocuous to life-threatening.

Answer 59

somatic delusion a false belief related to one or more bodily organs, such as that organs are functioning improperly or are diseased, injured, or otherwise altered. Although standard tests do not confirm the belief, the individual nonetheless continues to maintain this conviction. Also called **somatopsychic delusion**.

Answer 60

magical thinking the belief that events or the behavior of others can be influenced by one’s thoughts, wishes, or rituals. Magical thinking is typical of children up to 4 or 5 years of age, after which reality thinking begins to predominate.

Answer 61

mental status the global assessment of an individual’s cognitive, affective, and behavioral state as revealed by a mental examination that covers such factors as general health, appearance, mood, speech, sociability, cooperativeness, facial expression, motor activity, mental activity, emotional state, trend of thought, sensory awareness, orientation, memory, information level, general intelligence level, abstraction and interpretation ability, and judgment.

Answer 62

The Global Assessment of Functioning, or GAF, scale is used to rate how serious a mental illness may be. It measures how much a person's symptoms affect their day-to-day life on a scale of 0 to 100. It's designed to help mental health providers understand how well the person can do everyday activities. The score can help figure out what level of care someone may need and how well certain treatments might work.

Answer 63

main effect the consistent total effect of a single independent variable on a dependent variable over all other independent variables in an experimental design. It is distinct from, but may be obscured by, an interaction effect between variables.

Answer 64

post hoc comparison any examination in which two or more quantities are compared after data have been collected and without prior plans to carry out the particular comparison. For example, after obtaining a significant F ratio for a data set, a researcher may perform post hoc comparisons to follow up on and help explain the initial findings. Different statistical tests are required for post hoc comparisons than for a priori comparisons. Also called **a posteriori comparison** (or **contrast**); **post hoc contrast**; **unplanned comparison** (or **contrast**).

Answer 65

divided attention attention to two or more channels of information at the same time, so that two or more tasks may be performed concurrently. It may involve the use of just one sense (e.g., hearing) or two or more senses (e.g., hearing and vision).

Answer 66

implicit memory test a memory test that elicits nonconscious memories by instructing participants to respond with whatever first comes to mind. Despite the participants’ lack of conscious recollection of prior events, the tests show the effects of these events in terms of the speed of participant response or the content of the memories they retrieve. The tests are often organized into three categories: perceptual, conceptual, and procedural. They can also be verbal or nonverbal. Also called indirect memory test. As opposed to **explicit memory test**.

Answer 67

(A) Divided attention task

Answer 68

**Defensive pessimism** is a cognitive strategy identified by **Nancy Cantor** and her students in the mid-1980s. Individuals use defensive pessimism as a strategy to prepare for anxiety-provoking events or performances. When implementing defensive pessimism, individuals set low expectations for their performance, regardless of how well they have done in the past. Defensive pessimists then think through specific negative events and setbacks that could adversely influence their goal pursuits. By envisioning possible negative outcomes, defensive pessimists can take action to avoid or prepare for them. Using this strategy, defensive pessimists can advantageously harness anxiety that might otherwise harm their performance.

Answer 69

self-regulation n. the control of one’s behavior through the use of self-monitoring (keeping a record of behavior), self-evaluation (assessing the information obtained during self-monitoring), and self-reinforcement (rewarding oneself for appropriate behavior or for attaining a goal). Self-regulatory processes are stressed in **behavior therapy**.

Answer 70

By killing the cochlear hair cells of the inner ear.

Answer 71

cephalocaudal adj. from head to tail, as in the long axis of the body. The term typically refers to the maturation of an embryo or infant, wherein the greatest development takes place at the top of the body (i.e., the head) before the lower parts (i.e., the arms, trunk, legs).

Answer 72

In Piaget's conservation tasks, the preoperational child's tendency to fix on the most visually striking feature of a substance and not take other dimensions into account.

Answer 73

proximodistal adj. from the central to the peripheral. The term typically is used in the context of maturation to refer to the tendency to acquire motor skills from the center outward, as when children learn to move their heads, trunks, arms, and legs before learning to move their hands and feet.

Answer 74

mass-to-specific development in fetal and infantile development, progression from gross, random movements involving the whole body to more refined movements of body parts.

Answer 75

The hollow sphere of cells formed during the germinal stage in preparation for implantation.

Answer 76

Four distinct categories of adult attachment style are typically identified: * dismissive attachment * fearful attachment * preoccupied attachment * secure attachment Attachment styles with respect to infant–mother relationships were first described by Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues, who identified two main styles: secure attachment and insecure attachment, the latter characterized by various patterns (e.g., ambivalent attachment; anxious–avoidant attachment). Different attachment styles in infancy are associated with different psychological outcomes in childhood and later life.

Answer 77

* Denial * Anger * Bargaining * Depression * Acceptance

Answer 78

molar adj. characterized by or pertaining to units, masses, and systems in their entirety. Molar analysis (also called global analysis) in psychology is a way of examining behavioral processes as holistic units, extended through time. This approach stresses comprehensive concepts or overall frameworks or structures.

Answer 79

molecular adj. characterized by or pertaining to the component parts of a phenomenon, process, or system. Molecular analysis in psychology is a way of examining behavioral processes in terms of elemental units, sometimes analyzing them in a moment-by-moment or phase-by-phase manner.

Answer 80

...molar and purposive.

Answer 81

general adaptation syndrome (GAS) the physiological consequences of severe stress. The syndrome has three stages: **alarm**, **resistance**, and **exhaustion**. The first stage, the alarm reaction (or alarm stage), comprises two substages: the **shock phase**, marked by a decrease in body temperature, blood pressure, and muscle tone and loss of fluid from body tissues; and the **countershock phase**, during which the sympathetic nervous system is aroused and there is an increase in adrenocortical hormones, triggering a defensive reaction, such as the fight-or-flight response. The resistance stage (or adaptation stage) consists of stabilization at the increased physiological levels. High blood pressure can develop into hypertension, with risk of cardiovascular disturbance. Resources may be depleted and permanent organ changes produced. The exhaustion stage is characterized by breakdown of acquired adaptations to a prolonged stressful situation; it is evidenced by sleep disturbances, irritability, severe loss of concentration, restlessness, trembling that disturbs motor coordination, fatigue, jumpiness, low startle threshold, vulnerability to anxiety attacks, depressed mood, and crying spells. [first described by Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907–1982)]

Answer 82

(1907 – 1982) Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist who first described the **General Adaptation Syndrome** (**GAS)**.

Answer 83

perseveration–consolidation hypothesis the hypothesis that information passes through two stages in memory formation. During the first stage, the memory is held by **perseveration** (repetition) of neural activity and is easily disrupted. During the second stage, the memory becomes fixed, or **consolidated**, and is no longer easily disrupted. The perseveration–consolidation hypothesis guides much contemporary research on the biological basis of long-term learning and memory. Also called **consolidation hypothesis**; **consolidation–perseveration hypothesis**.

Answer 84

dual trace hypothesis a restatement of the perseveration–consolidation hypothesis of memory formation specifying that short-term memory is represented neurally by activity in reverberating circuits (a neural circuit in which nerve impulses that were initially activated in response to stimuli are more or less continuously reactivated so that retrieval of information on demand is possible) and that stabilization of these circuits leads to permanent synaptic change, reflecting the formation of long-term memory.

Answer 85

reverberating circuit a neural circuit in which nerve impulses that were initially activated in response to stimuli are more or less continuously reactivated so that retrieval of information on demand is possible. A theory of reverberating circuits has been proposed to explain learning and memory processes. Although reverberating circuits have been demonstrated only in the autonomic nervous system, they are also believed to exist in the central nervous system. Also called **reverberatory circuit**.

Answer 86

confabulation n. the falsification of memory in which gaps in recall are filled by fabrications that the individual accepts as fact. It is not typically considered to be a conscious attempt to deceive others. Confabulation occurs most frequently in Korsakoff’s syndrome and to a lesser extent in other conditions associated with neurologically based amnesia (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease). In forensic contexts, eyewitnesses may resort to confabulation if they feel pressured to recall more information than they can remember.

Answer 87

semantic priming an effect in which the processing of a stimulus is more efficient after the earlier processing of a meaningfully related stimulus, as opposed to an unrelated or perceptually related stimulus. For example, responses to the word nurse would be faster following presentation of the word doctor than of the word purse.

Answer 88

A **sequence effect** would be the perceived weight of a given object being influenced by whether a light or heavy object was handled just before. In contrast, an **order effect** would be the perceived weight of objects increasing as the experimental session progresses and subjects grow fatigued.

Answer 89

carryover effect the effect on the current performance of a research participant of the experimental conditions that preceded the current conditions; where such an effect is significant, it may be difficult to determine the specific influence of the variable under study. For example, in a crossover design in which a particular drug is administered to nonhuman animals in the first experimental condition, a carryover effect would be evident if the drug continued to exert an influence on the animals’ performance during a subsequent experimental condition. Also called **holdover effect**.

Answer 90

wash-out period the time frame allotted for an administered drug to be eliminated from the body or for a previously administered intervention to become ineffective. Wash-out periods are particularly important in medical and other clinical research because the **carryover effect** between treatments might otherwise confound the estimates of treatment effects.

Answer 91

response bias 1. the tendency for a study participant to give one answer or type of answer more than others, regardless of the stimulus condition. There are several different types of response bias, including the **halo effect**, **nay-saying**, and **yea-saying**. 2. in signal detection theory more specifically, the overall willingness to say yes (signal present) or no (signal not present), regardless of the actual presence or absence of the signal.

Answer 92

response set 1. a tendency to answer questions in a systematic manner that is unrelated to their content. An example is the social desirability response set. 2. in sport, the tendency for an athlete to exhibit the same pattern of play in specific situations (e.g., always faking to the right before driving for the basket).

Answer 93

response style a response set arising from dispositional factors that appear across contexts and over time rather than from situational factors.

Answer 94

Francis Galton

Answer 95

supplication n. a strategy for **self-presentation** that involves depicting oneself as weak, needy, or dependent so as to motivate others to provide assistance or care.

Answer 96

self-presentation n. any behaviors intended to convey a particular image of, or particular information about, the self to other people. Self-presentational motives explain why an individual’s behavior often changes as soon as anyone else is thought to be present or watching. Canadian-born U.S. sociologist Erving Goffman (1922–1982) likened self-presentation to a theatrical (dramaturgical) performance in which individuals strive to create an image of themselves through their verbal and nonverbal displays in order to influence the impressions formed by those around them. Some common strategies of self-presentation include **exemplification**, **self-promotion**, and **supplication**.

Answer 97

exemplification n. a strategy for self-presentation that involves inducing other people to regard one as a highly moral, virtuous person whose actions are consistent with positive, shared values.

Answer 98

self-promotion n. in self-presentation theory, a strategy of making oneself look good to others by highlighting or exaggerating one’s competence and abilities.

Answer 99

impression management behaviors intended to control how others perceive oneself, especially by guiding them to attribute desirable traits to oneself. Typically, it is assumed that people attempt to present favorable images of themselves as a means of obtaining social rewards and enhancing self-esteem. Impression management has been offered as an alternative explanation for some phenomena that traditionally have been interpreted in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. Some psychologists distinguish impression management from self-presentation by proposing that impression management involves only deliberate, conscious strategies.

Answer 100

...Sigmund Freud's emphasis on universal biological forces in personality.

Answer 101

masking n. 1. in perception, the partial or complete obscuring of one stimulus (the target) by another (the masker). The stimuli may be sounds (see auditory masking), visual images (see visual masking), tastes, odorants, or tactile stimuli. **Forward masking** occurs when the masker is presented a short time before the target stimulus, **backward masking** occurs when it is presented shortly afterward, and **simultaneous masking** occurs when the two stimuli are presented at the same instant. Also called **perceptual masking**.

Answer 102

attribution theory a theoretical proposition about the processes by which people ascribe motives to their own and others’ behavior, and particularly whether these motives are either internal and personal (a **dispositional** **attribution**) or external and circumstantial (a **situational** **attribution**). Harold H. Kelley identified three general principles of attribution: the **covariation principle**, stating that for a factor to be considered as a cause of behavior it must be present when the behavior occurs and not present when the behavior does not occur; the **discounting principle**, stating that the role of a particular cause in producing a particular effect should be given less weight if other plausible causes are also present; and the **augmentation principle**, stating that if someone performs an action when there are known constraints, costs, or risks (e.g., runs a marathon on a cold and rainy day), then his or her motive for doing so must be stronger than any of the inhibitory motives. Kelley’s work and other prominent attribution theories (e.g., correspondent inference theory) emerged from the **naive analysis of action** developed in 1958 by Fritz Heider.

Answer 103

naive analysis of action in attribution theory, a process of reasoning or intuiting by which laypersons determine whether another person (an “actor”) caused a certain action. Also called **lay psychology**; **naive psychology**. [postulated in 1958 by Fritz Heider]

Answer 104

...the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Answer 105

typicality effect the finding that people are quicker to make category judgments about typical members of a category than they are to make such judgments about atypical members. For example, they are more quickly able to judge that a dog is a mammal than they are able to judge that a whale is a mammal.

Answer 106

whole object assumption in language development, the tendency of children to suppose that a novel label refers to a whole object rather than to its parts, properties, or attributes. For example, if an adult points in the general direction of an object and uses a novel label for it, a child will assume that the whole object is the referent of the label.

Answer 107

taxonomic assumption in language development, the tendency of children to suppose that a novel word that refers to one thing also refers to similar things (rather than thematically related things). For example, a child will infer that if the word dog refers to a collie it can also refer to a poodle, but not to a thematic related thing, such as a dog bone.

Answer 108

...Arthur is a better student than Sheri.

Answer 109

authoritarian personality a personality pattern characterized by strict adherence to highly simplified conventional values, an attitude of great deference to authority figures while demanding subservience from those regarded as lower in status, and hostility toward people who deviate from conventional moral prescriptions.

Answer 110

Premack’s principle the view that the opportunity to engage in behavior with a relatively high baseline probability will reinforce behavior of lower baseline probability. For example, a hungry rat may have a high probability of eating but a lower probability of pressing a lever. Making the opportunity to eat depend on pressing the lever will result in reinforcement of lever pressing. Also called **Premack’s rule**. [David Premack (1925– ), U.S. psychologist]

Answer 111

About 25% of the students remember the false event, and many are quite confident in it.

Answer 112

self-reference effect the widespread tendency for individuals to have a superior or enhanced memory for stimuli that relate to the self or self-concept.

Answer 113

self-concept n. one’s description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth. Self-concepts contribute to the individual’s sense of identity over time. The conscious representation of self-concept is dependent in part on nonconscious schematization of the self (see schema). Although self-concepts are usually available to some degree to the consciousness, they may be inhibited from representation yet still influence judgment, mood, and behavioral patterns. Also called **self-appraisal**; **self-assessment**; **self-evaluation**; **self-rating**.

Answer 114

The **slime effect** is the tendency to form negative impressions of others who "kiss up" to superiors while treating subordinates with disdain.

Answer 115

mood-congruent memory consistency between one’s mood state and the emotional context of memories recalled. During positive mood states, individuals will tend to retrieve pleasant memories, whereas during negative mood states, negative thoughts and associations will more likely come to mind. However, there is evidence that the effects of these different mood states on memory are asymmetrical, with positive moods having stronger effects on memory retrieval than negative moods. When faced with an unpleasant emotional state, individuals may regulate it by retrieving pleasant thoughts and memories, thus reducing or reversing a negative mood-congruency effect.

Answer 116

perseverance effect the phenomenon in which people’s beliefs about themselves and others persist despite a lack of supporting evidence or even a contradiction of supporting evidence.

Answer 117

propinquity effect the tendency of individuals to form close relationships with people they repeatedly encounter. That is, the more often one comes into contact with another person, the more likely it is that one will form a friendship or romantic relationship with that person. For example, next-door neighbors often are friends with one another, as are classmates and coworkers, respectively. The propinquity effect possibly is related to the mere-exposure effect. [first theorized in 1950 by U.S. psychologists Leon Festinger and Stanley Schachter and Austrian-born U.S. sociologist Kurt Wolfgang Back (1920–1999), following a study of students living in the Westgate Apartments at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology]

Answer 118

skewness n. the degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distributed around a central point. A normal frequency distribution of data is shaped like a bell, with equal values for each of its three indices of central tendency—the mean, the median, and the mode. Approximately 68% of the scores lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean and approximately 95% of the scores lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean. When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end (e.g., when a test is difficult and few test takers do well), it has a positive skew (or is positively skewed), such that the mean is greater than the mode. When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the low end relative to the high end (e.g., when a test is easy and most test takers do well), it has a negative skew (or is negatively skewed).

Answer 119

ceiling effect a situation in which the majority of values obtained for a variable approach the upper limit of the scale used in its measurement. For example, a test whose items are too easy for those taking it would show a ceiling effect because most people would achieve or be close to the highest possible score. In other words, the test scores would exhibit skewness and have little variance, thus prohibiting meaningful analysis of the results.

Answer 120

floor effect the situation in which a large proportion of participants perform very poorly on a task or other evaluative measure, thus skewing the distribution of scores and making it impossible to differentiate among the many individuals at that low level. For example, a test whose items are too difficult for those taking it would show a floor effect because most people would obtain or be close to the lowest possible score of 0.

Answer 121

period effect any outcome associated with living during a particular time period or era, regardless of how old one was at the time. Certain historical events, such as war, the introduction of social media, or the events occurring on September 11, 2001, may affect responses of participants in research studies. Period effects may be difficult to distinguish from **age effects** and **cohort effects** in research.

Answer 122

cohort effect any outcome associated with being a member of a group whose members all undergo similar experiences. Cohort effects may be difficult to separate from **age effects** and **period effects** in research.

Answer 123

age effect 1. in research, any outcome associated with being a certain age. Such effects may be difficult to separate from **cohort effects** and **period effects**. 2. in the psychology of groups, any of various cognitive and interpersonal consequences that result when group members respond to others on the basis of their age.

Answer 124

ageism n. the tendency to be prejudiced against older adults, to negatively stereotype them (e.g., as unhealthy, helpless, or incompetent), and to discriminate against them, especially in employment and health care.

Answer 125

A **mediating variable** is a variable that links the independent and the dependent variables, and whose existence explains the relationship between the other two variables.

Answer 126

normal-sleep control \< yoked control = depressed

Answer 127

normal-sleep control = yoked control \< depressed

Answer 128

...Edward Thorndike

Answer 129

Excessive concern about the safety and well-being of attachment figures

Answer 130

...temperament.

Answer 131

Producing a synonym for each of the words

Answer 132

**Oligodendrocytes** in the brain and spinal cord and **Schwann cells** in the periphery of the body build the myelin sheaths that surround and insulate certain vertebrate axons. They also supply an axon with nutrients necessary for its functioning.

Answer 133

**Astrocytes** are star-shaped glia that wrap around the presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons. By surrounding a synapse between neurons, an astrocyte shields it from chemicals circulating in the surround. Also, by taking up ions released by axons and then releasing them back, an astrocyte helps synchronize the activity of the axons, enabling them to send messages in waves. Astrocytes also guide the formation and elimination of synapses. They remove waste material created when neurons die and control the amount of blood flow to each brain area. An additional function is that during periods of heightened activity in some brain area, astrocytes dilate the blood vessels to bring more nutrients into that area.

Answer 134

Tiny glial cells called **microglia** act as part of the immune system, removing waste material, viruses, and fungi from the brain. They proliferate after brain damage and in most brain diseases. Microglia are necessary for the survival of certain neurons early in life. They also contribute to learning by removing the weakest synapses.

Answer 135

**Radial glia** guide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development. When embryological development finishes, most radial glia differentiate into neurons, and a smaller number differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.

Answer 136

**Monocytes** are a type of leukocyte, or white blood cell.

Answer 137

**Endothelial cells** form a single cell layer that lines all blood vessels and regulates exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues.

Answer 138

hostile attribution bias a general tendency to ascribe harmful or otherwise adverse intent to the ambiguous behavior of others. For example, a child who insists that another child bumped into her on the school playground on purpose when the action in fact was accidental is demonstrating a hostile attribution bias, as is an employee who claims his name was deliberately left off the distribution list for a recent memo despite coworker assurances that the error was inadvertent. This cognitive distortion is associated with such phenomena as aggression, conduct disorders, narcissism, and externalization.

Answer 139

externalization n. 1. a defense mechanism in which one’s thoughts, feelings, or perceptions are attributed to the external world and perceived as independent of oneself or one’s own experiences. A common expression of this is projection. 2. the process of learning to distinguish between the self and the environment during childhood. 3. the process by which a drive, such as hunger, is aroused by external stimuli, such as food, rather than by internal stimuli.

Answer 140

axon hillock

Answer 141

dendritic spine a mushroom-shaped outgrowth along the dendrite of a neuron, which forms a synapse with the axon terminals of neighboring neurons. Research suggests that neurons develop dendritic spines as part of an organism’s learning process. Also called **dendritic thorn**.

Answer 142

individuation n. 1. generally, the physiological, psychological, and sociocultural processes by which a person attains status as an individual human being and exerts himself or herself as such in the world. 2. in the psychoanalytic theory of Carl Jung, the gradual development of a unified, integrated personality that incorporates greater and greater amounts of the unconscious, both personal and collective, and resolves any conflicts that exist, such as those between introverted and extraverted tendencies. 3. a phase of development, occurring between the 18th and 36th months, in which infants become less dependent on their mothers and begin to satisfy their own wishes and fend for themselves. [postulated by Hungarian-born U.S. child psychoanalyst Margaret Schönberger Mahler (1897–1985)]

Answer 143

impression formation the process in which an individual develops a schema of some object, person, or group. Early research on impression formation demonstrated that impressions were often influenced by the primacy effect; more recent studies have focused on the roles played in the process by such factors as the perceiver’s cognitive processes (e.g., how readily some types of ideas come to mind) and feelings (e.g., anger can predispose the perceiver to stereotype an individual).

Answer 144

prestige suggestion 1. a message whose persuasiveness derives from its delivery by or attribution to a person of recognized status. 2. a method of supportive, symptomatic treatment that relies on the prestige of the therapist in the eyes of the patient to reduce or eliminate symptoms. The so-called **omnipotent therapist** may be able to abolish undesirable symptoms, at least temporarily, by suggestion.

Answer 145

symptomatic treatment treatment directed toward the relief of distressing symptoms, as opposed to treatment focused on underlying causes and conditions. Symptomatic treatment of chronic migraines, for example, would involve the use of analgesics to relieve pain without attempting to discover why the migraines are occurring.

Answer 146

deindividuation n. an experiential state characterized by loss of self-awareness, altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints that results in the performance of unusual and sometimes antisocial behavior. It can be caused by a number of factors, such as a sense of anonymity or submersion in a group.

Answer 147

**Social categorization** is the process through which we group individuals based upon social information. The “Big Three” are sex, race, and age, but numerous other dimensions are categorized as well, such as social status, occupation, and even perceptually ambiguous categories such as sexual orientation.

Answer 148

...motor neuron.

Answer 149

Increasing the emphasis on measuring specific abilities rather than g

Answer 150

The **Flynn effect** is the phenomenon of the gradual increase in IQ sores over the last century.

Answer 151

...social referencing.

Answer 152

behavioral inhibition a temperamental predisposition characterized by restraint in engaging with the world combined with a tendency to scrutinize the environment for potential threats and to avoid or withdraw from unfamiliar situations or people. It is often related to social anxiety and a predisposition for greater physiological reactivity to novel situations.

Answer 153

synchrony n. 1. the simultaneous occurrence of things or events. 2. the rhythmic coordination of speech and movement that occurs nonconsciously both in and between individuals during communication: In self-synchrony, the individual’s bodily movements (e.g., hand gestures, head movements) tend to be synchronized with his or her own speech; in interactional synchrony, the movements of the listener correspond with the speech and movements of the speaker. The latter term also denotes an interaction between a parent and infant that is characterized by attunement even to small shifts in the responses or signals between them. Parent–infant synchrony in the first months of life has been shown to predict secure attachment in the infant and to promote the child’s later emotional and social development. [originally studied in the 1970s by U.S. psychologist William S. Condon and U.S. psychiatrist Louis W. Sander (1918–2012)] 3. in dance therapy, the act of moving together in harmony, which tends to bring people into greater emotional closeness.

Answer 154

...Alzheimer's disease.

Answer 155

substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder a disturbance in memory due to the persisting effects of a substance (see amnestic disorder). The ability to learn new information or to recall previously learned information is impaired severely enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning and to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning.

Answer 156

orienting response 1. a behavioral response to an altered, novel, or sudden stimulus, such as turning one’s head toward an unexpected noise. Physiological components of the orienting response have been identified as well, including dilation of pupils and blood vessels and changes in heart rate and electrical resistance of the skin. [described in 1927 by Ivan Pavlov] 2. any response of an organism in relation to the direction of a specific stimulus. Also called **orienting reflex**.

Answer 157

1. Noticing 2. Interpretation 3. Perception of responsibility 4. Knowing how to help 5. Deciding to help

Answer 158

There is evidence they can influence short-term attitude change.

Answer 159

...enlarged ventricles and a reduction of the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 160

Conformity increases as group size increases from two people to four or five people.

Answer 161

...an obsession.

Answer 162

Speed in recognizing relevant complex patterns

Answer 163

personal fable a belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of **adolescent egocentrism** and may extend further into the lifespan. Also called **invincibility fable**.

Answer 164

adolescent egocentrism the feeling of personal uniqueness often experienced in adolescence; that is, the conviction that one is special and is or should be the constant focus of others’ attention.

Answer 165

imaginary audience the belief of an adolescent that others are constantly focusing attention on him or her, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like. The adolescent feels as though he or she is continually the central topic of interest to a group of spectators (i.e., an audience) when in fact this is not the case (i.e., an imaginary audience). It is an early adolescent construct reflective of acute self-consciousness and is considered an expression of **adolescent egocentrism**.

Answer 166

immanent justice the belief that rules are fixed and immutable and that punishment automatically follows misdeeds regardless of extenuating circumstances. Children up to the age of 8 equate the morality of an act only with its consequences; not until later do they develop the capacity to judge motive and subjective considerations.

Answer 167

...prefrontal cortex.

Answer 168

...a large number of hits and a large number of false alarms.

Answer 169

Conducting a *t* test on the two means

Answer 170

Pronunciation

Answer 171

Single factor within subjects

Answer 172

Archival analysis

Answer 173

Pure altruism

Answer 174

social facilitation the improvement in an individual’s performance of a task that often occurs when others are present. This effect tends to occur with tasks that are uncomplicated or have been previously mastered through practice. There is some disagreement as to whether the improvement is due to a heightened state of arousal, a greater self-awareness, or a reduced attention to unimportant and distracting peripheral stimuli. By contrast, **social interference** is likely to be seen when the task is complicated, particularly if it is not well learned.

Answer 175

social interference 1. any actions that conflict with, obstruct, hamper, or undermine the activities and experiences of others. 2. the reduction of productivity that occurs when individuals work in the presence of others. Compare social facilitation.

Answer 176

interference theory the hypothesis that forgetting is due to competition from other learning or other memories.

Answer 177

Changing from a two-tailed to a one-tailed test

Answer 178

The **statistical power of a binary hypothesis test** is the probability that the test correctly rejects the null hypothesis when a specific alternative hypothesis is true.

Odds and Ends Flashcards

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