Olfaction And Gustation Flashcards
1
Q
Define what pheromones are and how they impact other organisms.
A
Pheromones are specialized olfactory chemicals that act to communicate or elicit a response of an individual of the same species.
2
Q
How are pheromones detected?
A
They are detected by the accessory olfactory epithelium, a segment of the olfactory epithelium, detects the pheromones.
3
Q
True or false, after pheromones are detected by the accessory olfactory epithelium, the signal is sent to the olfactory bulb
A
False, once the pheromones are detected by the accessory olfactory epithelium, the signal is sent to the ACCESSORY olfactory bulb
4
Q
Describe the travel of smell signals after the vomeronasal systems receive pheromone signals.
A
It sends signals to a glomerulus in the olfactory bulb. Then it is projected from the glomerulus and sent to a mitral cell and then relayed to the brain.
5
Q
After the gustatory cortex has processed the information, it has the ability to send the signal to the limbic system structures such as the amygdala. What is the significance of the amygdala in pheromone processing?
A
The amygdala is involved in emotion, aggression, and mating. The organism can then regulate the behavior based on the pheromones they are detecting in the environment
6
Q
Mitral Cells are also known as:
A. Mitral Valve
B. Tuft Valve
C. Tuft cell
D. Bicupsid cells
A
C. Tuft Cells.
7
Q
Much like normal olfactory cells, how does the accessory olfactory cells depolarize?
A
Both have G coupled protein receptors that cause the G protein to dissociate from the membrane to elicit ion channels to open to allow + ions to flow into the cell to depolarize the cell
8
Q
True or False: Humans have no ability to process pheromones.
A
True. Even though humans don’t have the ability to detect and process pheromones, they still have olfactory bulbs.
9
Q
As Angelie is eating a cake, how is the olfactory system also functioning as well?
A
Chewing causes the chemicals to go up the nose and bind to olfactory bulbs. Receptors here are also stimulated as well. Therefore eating is a combination of the gustatory and olfactory system.
10
Q
Catalina is feeling sick today and she says she doesn’t want to eat because nothing tastes good to her. Why is this phenomenon occurring?
A
Because she is sick, she is experiencing nasal congestion. This prevents her olfactory epithelium cells from capturing the incoming chemicals and therefore her experience in eating is not enriched as it normally would.
11
Q
The glomerulus of the olfactory bulb:
A. Receives a single information from a single nerve
B. Receives many information from a single nerve
C. Receives many information from many nerves
D. Receives a single information from many nerves
A
D. Receives a single type of information from many nerves detecting the same information. These nerves are randomly dispersed in the olfactory epithelium
12
Q
What is the importance of the many glomerulus synapsing onto one tuft cell in the olfactory bulb?
A
This is important as it is easier to have a few axons travel to the brain than having 1000+ axons sent to the brain at once
13
Q
The depolarization of an olfactory nerve occurs only when…
A
A chemical binds on the receptor to cause a G couple protein to dissociate and produce other effects.
14
Q
There are 5 main tastes detected by the tongue. Associate which specific chemical causes elicits the perception of umami and sweet.
A
Umami - Glutamate
Sweet - glucose or other sugars
15
Q
The old dogma of taste consists of a taste map, defining different portions of the tongue to a particular taste. What is the new theory of taste?
A
Papillae consisting of receptors are sprinkled all over the tongue. Different portions of the tongue have different concentrations of different types of taste buds.
Anteriorly - increase concentration of fungiform papillae
Lateral - some foliate papillae
Posterior - Circumvallate papillae
16
Q
Differentiate the difference between circumvallate and foliate papillae
A
Circumvallate has a wider superior border than the foliate papillae and contains more than 100 taste buds in each papillae. Both have taste buds on the lateral sides of the papillae
17
Q
Describe the travel of a chemical stimulus after it is transduced in the olfactory system.
A
Chemical travels up the nostrils => Binds to receptors on the olfactory epithelium and signal is transduced to electrical => travels up the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb to the glomerulus => Signals synapse to the mitral cells => Signals sent to the olfactory cortex through the olfactory tract
18
Q
Describe the relationship between papillae and taste buds.
A
Papillae are the engorged grooves of the tongue. These papillae contains many taste buds.
Circumvallate papillae - 100+ taste buds
Fungiform papillae - 3-5 taste buds
19
Q
True or False - Taste buds consist of neuronal receptor that have the ability to detect all 5 tastes
A
False. These receptors are specialized epithelial cells, therefore they have to synapse onto other neuronal cells. Each taste bud does have the ability to detect all 5 tastants
20
Q
Like many cortices processing other information, how is the gustatory cortex organized?
A
The gustatory cortex is also divided into different regions to process only a certain type of smell. (no need to know specifics)
21
Q
You’re eating a piece of cake, and two different receptors are stimulated on different portions of the tongue by the sugar. Describe their detection and signal travel from the tongue to the brain
A
Both are activated by glucose and send their signals up to the brain. Along the way, the the axons bundle to form a tract in a similar pathway up to the gustatory cortex
22
Q
In an experiment, to test the labeled line model, you have inserted umami receptors onto a salt cell in a dog. Based on the labeled line model, what is the expected outcome after the dog was given some meat.
A
The labeled line model states that taste information does not mix from detection to the brain. Because the cell is a salt cell, the signal will be sent to the brain without interruption and the brain won’t be able to distinguish the umami flavor of the meat.
23
Q
In an experiment, to test the labeled line model, you have inserted sweet receptors onto a salt cell in a mouse. Based on the labeled line model, what is the expected outcome after the mouse has had some salt.
A
No signals would be detected. The sweet receptors would not bind with the salt and the cell then won’t fire. Therefore the brain won’t interpret anything even though the actual stimulus is present
24
Q
How are the 5 different tastes (salty, sweet, sour, umami, and bitter) sensed by the tongue
A. There are areas of the tongue whose taste buds are sensitive to one of the five flavors
B. There are areas of the tongue whose taste buds are sensitive to one of the five flavors
C. Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors
D. Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense 1 of the 5 flavors
A
C. Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors
25
Anosmia is the partial or complete lost of smell, which can affect taste as well. What are the causes of anosmia?
Trauma, respiratory infections, and aging
26
The most primitive sensory receptors are…
Chemoreceptors. Though the most primitive, they are the most fundamental as well as they are important in activating and creating memories, alerting individuals of danger, and enriching life of sensory
27
The sense of taste and smell are sharpest at birth. How do neonates utilize the sense of smell?
They utilize the sense of smell to orient themselves, such as finding their mother
28
The sense of taste and smell are sharpest at birth. How do neonates utilize the sense of taste?
They can taste difference in mother’s milk to others and this allows them to find their proper source which ensures their safety.
29
What requirement does chemicals have to have in order to be detected by the nose?
These chemicals have to be volatile (in a gaseous state) in order to travel up the nose
30
Millions of olfactory sensory neurons exist in the olfactory bulb. What supports these cells in the epithelium?
The columnar supporting cells
31
True or False: Each olfactory sensory neuron specializes to detect on kind of smell.
True.
32
```
About 40 million olfactory sensory neurons help us identify smells. How many different smells can be detected as a result?
A. 100,000,000
B. 10,000,000
C. 100,000
D. 10,000
```
D. 10,000 smells plus or minus a deviation, but the number is around here.
33
In latin, Glomus means a ball of yarn. How does this help distinguish the role of the glomerulus in the olfactory bulb?
The glomerulus looks much like one, due to the tangle of fibers and because it relays information to a mitral cell, it functions as a relay station
34
Once the information has been processed in the olfactory cortex, it can be funneled to one of two places. What is the purpose of sending information to the frontal lobe?
It helps the individual to consciously identify the smell.
35
Once the information has been processed in the olfactory cortex, it can be funneled to one of two places. What is the purpose of sending information to the hypothalamus?
Information sent to the limbic system (hypothalamus, amygdala, etc) is associated with emotions. These pathways are fast, intense, and triggers memories if the odor is associated with memories or experiences
36
True or False: Taste is 50% smell
False. Taste is 80% smell
37
While holding your nose, you eat a lemon and a lime. What are you able to detect? What are you not able to detect?
Because smell plays a large portion of taste (80%), with no smell, taste will be muted. Smell also plays a large role in distinguishing differences, therefore you’ll be able to taste sour in both, you won’t be able to taste the difference between a lime and lemon
38
After some exposure to some radioactivity, a dog has been discovered to have lost all of its basal cells in the tastebuds. What are your expectations?
Basal cells in the tastebuds are stem cells to replace gustatory cells in the papillae. Without the basal cells, the gustatory cells (receptors of tastants) won’t regenerate if it should die and lost of taste would occur
39
After being in the oven for 30 minutes, you finally remove a pizza. In a hurry to taste the pizza, Juan takes a huge bite, burning his tongue. What has occurred to the taste buds? What should happen in a normal setting?
The heat has caused the gustatory cells to die, therefore he should not be able to taste food in this portion of his tongue. The basal cells should regenerate to become new gustatory cells in about a week.
40
True or false: There are 5 types of basal cells: Umami, salt, sweet, sour, and bitter.
False. There are 5 types of gustatory cells: Umami, salt, sweet, sour, and bitter.
41
There are 5 main tastes detected by the tongue. Associate which specific chemical causes elicits the perception of salt and sour tastes.
Salty - Na+ ions
| Sour - H+
42
Which cranial nerve(s) do gustatory information travel up in order to reach the gustatory cortex?
The signal is relayed through neurons via CN VII, IX, and X to the gustatory cortex
43
After the brain interprets taste information, what occurs?
A. Induce reflexive chewing
B. Induce reflexive swallowing
C. Secrete proteins
D. Send information to the limbic system
C. Secrete proteins. It begins to release digestive enzymes in saliva, gastric juices in stomach to help break down the particles
44
Consciousness is the awareness of oneself and their environment, ranging from what state to what?
Consciousness captures from alertness to sleep. Therefore sleep is a part of consciousness as well.
45
Differentiate daydreaming to drowsiness in terms of consciousness.
Both are states of consciousness in which they can with come about naturally or be induced by light meditation
Daydreaming is a state of awakeness and awareness of the world. It is associated with unfocused relaxation
Drowsiness is a state of close to sleep, but still semi aware of the world
46
What is one stage of consciousness not often thought about when defining consciousness. Why is it still considered a part of being aware about one’s self and the environment?
Sleep is a state of consciousness too that is often not thought about. While individuals may not be aware of shifting from one state of consciousness to another, the brain is able to know this through sets of neurons in the CNS that fire rhythmically, leading to neural oscillations
47
In a sleep study, you are assessing your patient’s neuronal oscillations and see that these waves are occurring at a 6 hz. What frequency is this? What type of consciousness are they currently at?
These are Theta waves, θ. These types of waves, from 4 - 7 hz, are associated with drowsiness and these patterns can be seen right after a person has just fallen asleep. Therefore the sleep is light
48
After a traumatic fall onto his head, your 8 year old patient is brought into the ER by his parents. All his vitals are normal: HR of 60, BP of 110/60. You order an EEG to double check all neuronal functions are performing normally and your intern brings you a chart with waves of 10 hz. What is his current state of consciousness?
He is in a state of daydreaming. Alpha waves, α, associated with this type of consciousness are from 8 - 18hz
49
In a lab experiment you are attempting to cause your mouse to be fully aroused by electroshock. At what point of the frequencies of the EEG produced by the mouse, should you stop the experiment
Once the EEG demonstrates Beta waves, β, oscillates from 12 - 30 hz. These wave patterns are associated with alertness. `
50
True or false: There are 4 different stages of sleep, and the brain cycles through these stages every 120 minutes.
False. There are 4 stages of sleep: NonREM (N)1, N2, N3, and REM. However these stages are cycled through every 90 minutes
51
Waves of sleep are often shared with the same waves seen during awake states. N1 sleep shares waves with what awake stage?
Theta waves, 4 - 7 hz are shared in the N1 Sleep, which is also seen in drowsiness.
52
It’s bedtime. You are laying on top of Juan’s chest when his arm and legs start jerking. What stage of sleep is he currently in? What hz are the brain waves he is currently producing? What is the medical term for this phenomenon?
Juan is currently in his N1 stage, with theta waves (θ) oscillating from 4 -7 hz. HE is currently experiencing hypnic jerks
53
Angelie and you are watching a movie and you notice she is slightly dozing off. She jerks awake and says she saw very bright lights and thinks it was an alien. What phenomenon did she just experience? What portion of sleep was she in when this phenomenon occurred?
She was experiencing hypnagogic hallucinations, which is seen in N1 sleep stages.
54
You can’t sleep and it is the middle of the night. You reach over to Juan and slightly brush his arm, but he doesn’t stir and continues to snore. What portion of sleep is he currently in right now? What is preventing him from noticing your touch?
He’s currently sleeping in the N2 sleep stage. During these stages, it is slightly harder to wake the person up. The touch induces K complexes that appear on the EEGs. These complexes are much like the QRS complexes in ECGs and occur both naturally and can be induced. This may be associated with suppressing cortical arousal from non threatening stimuli to keep the person asleep
55
What is one theory about K complexes and why they exist?
One theory defends K complexes are important to consolidate memories into long term.
56
After observing your patient’s electroencephalogram during a sleep study, your resident states that the waves indicate N1 stage, but there are other noises surrounding the waves. One is rapid and the other creates a QRS like complex. Explain that these noises are to your resident.
These “noises” are actually the Sleep spindles and the K complex seen in the N2 sleep stage. While both N1 and N2 share theta waves, but N2 differs due to these tracings. There’s much unknown with both and more so with the S-spindles, but both are apparent in suppressing cognitive function (S-spindle) and cognitive arousal (K)
57
Still wide awake in the middle of the night, you hear a loud noise outside and attempt to wake Juan up out of your fear. No matter how much you shake him, he doesn’t budge. What stage of sleep is he currently in? What waves are associated with this stage of sleep?
Juan is in the N3 stage, where Delta waves, Δ, of 0.5 - 2 hz are present. During this stage, most people are considered “dead to the world” because it is very hard to wake the indv up.
58
You and Angelie play a prank on Tracy and lift up her eyelids while she is sleeping. You both see her eyes moving very fast. What stage of sleep is she undergoing?
She is currently in the REM stage of sleep and maybe dreaming (this is the stage in which dreams occur and rapid eye movement is typically associated with dreaming)
59
Explain why the REM stage of sleep is also called Paradoxical sleep?
During this stage, the muscles are paralyzed [advantageous because during dreaming, indv can hurt themselves if they act out their dreams]. However, the brain appears to be functioning, due to the activity of the brainstem inhibiting motor, as if the person is awake. EEGs of the brain are theta and beta waves. These active brain waves need to occur in order to suppress the body
60
```
The correct pattern of sleep stage:
A. N2 -> N3 -> N1 -> REM -> N1->
B. N1 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM -> N1->
C. N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> REM ->
D. N3 -> N2 -> REM -> N1 -> N2 ->
```
D. is the same as N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM ->R1 only because the new stage of focus stars at N3
61
In general sleep lasts about 90 minutes. However duration of the stages at which the indv spends depends on…
1. Partially how old the indv is
2. Partially how long the indv has been asleep (N3/slow wave sleep tends to last longer in the first few hours and then more REM sleep before you wake up)
62
Describe the pattern of circadian rhythm throughout the day.
Circadian rhythm rises during the day and dives momentarily in the afternoon. It then goes up in the evening and falls again at night
63
What regulates the circadian rhythm?
Light. It causes the system to be active. Even artificial light can influence the way it regulates
64
True or False: Not everyone is able to dream.
False, in general, everyone dreams, no matter if they remember it or not. Only those with neuronal damages are unable to dream.
65
True or False: Dreams occurring in the non REM stages of sleep are not possible.
False. Dreams are able to occur in the non-REM stages of sleep. However, these are not vivid and not memorable.
66
```
Dreams
A. 90 minutes each
B. 60 - 90 minutes
C. 20 - 40 minutes
D. 10 - 20 minutes
```
D. Dreams typically last from 5 - 20 minutes during REM sleep
67
```
As a person dreams, the most active part of their brain is:
A. Frontal cortex
B. Temporal lobe
C. Occipital Lobe
D. Brainstem
```
None of the answers. Dreams typically are not localized to a region in the brain. During the dreaming process, the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobe is least active.
68
Angelie is telling you a story about a dream she had last night. As she continues, the story becomes more and more bizarre. Why is the strangeness of her dream believable?
As a person dreams, their prefrontal cortex is suppressed in its function. This means their ration and logical thinking are not working and therefore these strangeness makes more sense in dreams
69
True or false: There are many theories for dreams, therefore there many reasons for the existence of dreams.
False. No one really knows why dreams occur. There are many theories in interpreting them.
70
Freud’s theories about dreams have become very popularized over the years. What are they? What evidence demonstrates their validity?
Freud hypothesized that dreams are unconscious, hidden feelings and thought manifesting themselves as dreams, and therefore they hold meaning. There is no evidence to this.
71
How has evolutionary psychological theorists contrast on the meaning of dreams
There are many theories about dreams in the same school of thought
1. Dreams don’t hold meaning, they are simply byproducts of neural development and the brain is attempting to develop these electrical impulses. AKA Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
2. Dreams allow problem solving by thinking about these problems in an altered biochemical state (Problem Solving Dream Theory)
3. Dreams allow simulation of threats so we are better prepared to face them in the real world
72
Other schools of thoughts theorize that dreams enable us to be more creative when we are awake. How is this achieved according to the theory?
The brain combines conscious and unconscious elements that occur during dreaming to help maintain the flexibility of the brain. This helps us learn and therefore become more creative when we’re awake.
73
```
The theory that dreams allow consolidation of long term memory falls under which school of thought?
A. Psychological
B. Ecological
C. Physiological
D. Freudian
```
C. Physiological. The ones needed to know about dreaming are the psychological, physiological, and Freudian theories. Dreaming helps the brain clean up by sweeping away some thoughts and incorporating others into long term memory; this theory falls under physiological.
74
What evidence confirms consolidation of memory due to the existence of dreams?
There is a link between the memory and sleep. Those who learn something and then sleep tend to do better in recalling than those who learn and then are deprived of sleep
BUT role of REM and memory are unclear as of now
75
How are infants and their sleep used to confirm a theory of sleep?
One theory about dreams is that they help the brain repair and recuperate by preserving and developing neural pathways. Infants spend lots of time sleeping, therefore dreaming and it is a fact that infants are constantly developing new neurons
76
How can dreams be elaborately divided under Freud?
| According to Freud, dreams can be divided into 2:
A. Manifest content: What happens in our dreams?
| B. Latent content: What are the hidden meanings of your dreams?
77
How does the Freudian theory of dreams contrast with the Activation Synthesis Hypothesis in terms of purpose of dreams?
Freud thought that the dreams held meaning and the Activation Synthesis Hypothesis supports there are no meanings behind a dream
78
Besides increase in irritability, what are some consequences of sleep deprivation?
Poor Performance in memory and detection and slowed reaction time
Increase susceptibility to obesity due to increase in hormones: cortisol and ghrelin. Cortisol increases fat production and decreases immune system function. Ghrelin increases hunger
Increase risk for depression
79
What theory of sleep may support the increased risk of depression due to the lack of sleep?
One theory of dreaming defends REM sleep helps your brain process emotional experiences. This in turn helps protect against depression. But the link is much unknown.
80
How can you recover from sleep deprivation?
Sleep. This can help recover the sleep you lost
81
How much sleep is required?
Varies from indv to indv, but in general, adults need 7 - 8 hours. Babies need more sleep and older adults can sleep less than 7 hours and normally function.
82
True or false: Narcolepsy affects 1/2000 people and Sleep apnea affects 1/20 people
True! Sleep fits can spontaneously occur and last for 5 minutes at a time, while apnea cycles can occur over 100 times a night
83
What are the reasons for narcolepsy?
This is mostly genetic and there is some evidence that there is a dysfunction of a hormone produced by the thalamus, hypocretin AKA Oxerin, associated with alertness. [note also seems to be associated with many other functions as well: appetite and energy expenditure]
84
For individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea, they go through bouts of breathing and intensely waking up to gasp for air. How long can the person stop breathing before the brain forces them to unconsciously gasp?
About 1 minute. Even as this occurs, the person is not aware of the violently gasping
85
Your friend is telling you about how they feel tired in the mornings after a good night's rest while her husband complains about her snores at night. What could she potentially have?
Sleep apnea. Snoring is a sign of the disorder and the fatigue definitely is a cause of concern.
86
What are the causes for sleepwalking and sleep talking?
Genetics
87
There is a common saying that children grow out of sleepwalking and sleep talking. Is this true?
In general yes. Children spend more time sleeping in N3 stages. During this slow wave sleep, sleepwalk and sleep talk is most prominent. As they grow, the time spent in these stages here decreases.
88
States of consciousness can be induced. What are two states of consciousness that can be induced through effort?
Hypnosis and meditation
89
There is a common thought that hypnosis can retrieve certain memories, but is quoted by KHAN that is a dangerous process. Why is this the case?
Memory retrieval based on hypnosis is dangerous because it can change the memories of the person induced to include things that were never there originally such as the hypnotizer as part of the memory
90
What is a medical use of hypnosis?
There has been some evidence stating that hypnosis can cause reduced brain activities in areas of sensory inputs such as pain centers. Therefore it can be used for pain treatment even if it doesn’t inhibit the centers. The extent of this process works only as much as the patient believes in it however.
91
Though there are not much studies on long term effects of meditation, what do some studies demonstrate on the short term basis of deep meditation?
There is an increase activity in their prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula when they’re not meditating. This demonstrates there is an increase in control of attention (the goal of meditation)
92
Your patient was referred to you from family medicine and her husband is complaining she is having bouts of troubled sleep throughout the night. She would randomly wake up gasping for air, yet she doesn’t notice it. As a specialist, what systems would you examine to make your final diagnosis?
(1) Neural - Brain trauma, diseases, infections (2) Upper Respiratory tracts (3) Lungs. All three in some type of way will contribute to some level of sleep apnea and depending on the cause of the apnea, the diagnosis will be different: Central Sleep Apnea, Obstructive Sleep Apnea, and Disorders of Sleep Associated Hypoventilation
93
What are the requirements in diagnosing your patient with obstructive sleep apnea? What are the causes of this disorder?
In order to diagnose an indv with obstructive sleep apnea, the indv needs to have more than 15 apneas+more/hour. This occurs when the soft tissues lining the airways obstruct the flow of air, which can cause snoring or gasping.
94
What does apnea mean?
Apnea means any obstruction to airflow
95
```
Q - A Sleep study is
A. Polygraph Test
B. Polysynaptography
C. Polysomnography
D. Polycythemia
```
C. Polysomnography
96
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Q - Diagnosing Central Sleep Apnea requires the individual to have …. Apneas/hour
A. 5
B. 10
C. 15
D. 20
```
A. 5 or more an hour
97
What is Cheyne-Stokes?
This is the graphical representation of indv with central sleep apnea respiratory rates. Instead of the normal inhale and exhale, indv with CSA have crescendos, decrescendos and no breathe. [note: this sign is associated with heart failure or stroke and can onset from trauma to the brain or brain tumors]
98
What are the consequences of central sleep apneas?
Central Sleep Apnea could result in heart failure, strokes, and renal disease.
99
What are the consequences of disorders of sleep associated with hypoventilation?
This type of disorder would cause an imbalance of gases within the body. Chronically elevated CO2 can potentially cause right sided heart failure and low levels of O2 in the body would result in cognitive impairments, cardiac problems (such as arrhythmias), and blood disorders such as polycythemia
100
Polycythemia is a…
A blood disorder in which there is an elevation of red blood cells, produced as a response to deliver more oxygen to the tissues. This disorder is a side effect of disorders of sleep associated with hypoventilation.
101
What is the medical term sleep apnea as a result of dysfunction of the lungs?
Disorders of Sleep Associated Hypoventilation
102
True or False: The average person spends ¼ of their lives sleeping.
False! An average person spends closer to ⅓ of their lives sleeping!!
103
True or False: During REM sleep, the brain inhibits all motor functions in order to prevent the body from acting out their dreams.
False, all but ocular motor. This allows the eye to rapid move.
104
REM sleep behavior disorder is a disorder…
in which you physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep — sometimes called dream-enacting behavior. Mechanisms of dysfunction are unknown and but may be linked to dopamine deficiency
105
Compare and contrast the difference between night terrors and nightmares. Are the simply the same thing?
Both are different because they occur in different stages of sleep. Night terrors occur during N3 sleep stage and nightmares occur in REM sleep. Usually with night terrors, vocalization occurs and much of it is unremembered by the person. As children spend more time in N3 sleep, children tend to have more night terrors. With nightmares, many can still remember them
106
Explain how the post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with sleep disorders.
Nightmares and night terrors (sleep disorders) can be a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder in which the indv relives their trauma in dreams
107
What is oneirology?
This is the study of dreams through the utilization of neuroscience and psychology
108
Differentiate Information Processing Theory and Activation Synthesis Hypothesis.
Information Processing Theory is the theory that defends our dreams helps us sort out and process the events of the day and consolidate them into our memories. Therefore dreams are important in new information [some information demonstrates better recall of information after REM sleep full of dreams]
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis: Defends that dreams are simply the brain’s interpretation of electrical impulses and therefore hold no meaning.
109
Compare and contrast Information Processing Theory and Physiological function theory.
While both are theories about dreams and both defend there are purposes to dreams. They differ on why. Information Processing Theory defends dreams process information into memories, while physiological function theory defends dreams promote neuron growth and development. (while both appear to be similar because one leads to another, strengthening connections allow memories, they are different because the information processing theory differs on why.
110
How does the cognitive development theory contrast from the physiological function theory?
Both are theories about the meaning of dreams. The cognitive development theory draws on our knowledge and understanding of the world. Dreams are simply thoughts or sequences of thoughts that occur during sleep-states. Therefore they mimic reality and engage those same brain networks when we daydream.
111
Describe consciousness in William James eyes.
William James states that consciousness is continuous and shifting. Therefore a stream of consciousness.
112
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An EEG is a
A. Structural Imaging
B. Physical Imaging
C. Functional Imaging
D. Magnetic Imaging
```
C. Functional imaging. And Electroencephalogram is an electromagnetic or metabolic activity in the brain, like blood flow. Structural Imaging - shows brains anatomy and is useful in identifying large-scale tumors and structures, disease
113
What is the relationship between dual processing and consciousness?
Dual processing is the principle in which information is simultaneously processed on a conscious and non conscious pathway. Therefore there are two layers of information processing
114
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Q - While the body processes … information, the mind only consciously perceives … different types of information at a time.
A. 2 million … 20
B. 100,000 … 100
C. 100 … 1 million
D. 11 million … 40
```
D. 11 million … 40
115
If the body is simultaneously perceiving so much information at once, how are we able to stay focused?
Selective attention is how we focus our consciousness on one particular group of stimuli.
116
What is the cocktail party effect? What does it exemplify in psychology?
This a classic auditory example of selective attention. An individual is able to focus on one conversation in a crowded noisy room, but then you are able to automatically shift your attention as soon as you hear your name.
117
When you shift your attention from driving to you texting Juan back, what occurs? Which aspect of your attention decreases? Which aspect of your attention increases?
Your primary selective attention, you also automatically activate your selective INattention. This means that you failed to attend and process other information
118
Compare and Contrast the difference between selective inattention and inattention blindness.
Selective inattention is unmindful absence or failure of attention to particular physical or emotional stimuli while inattention blindness is the failure to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object.
119
The gorilla experiment example is an example of what phenomenon?
This experiment tests the selective attention and selective inattention a person is committing to during a task. It also demonstrates inattention blindness.
120
Often time magicians utilize human’s change blindness to successfully perform a stunt. What does that mean?
This is the psychological phenomenon in which we fail to notice changes in our environment.
121
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The following are all examples of altering our state of consciousness except…
A. Drugs
B. Nutrition
C. Hallucinations
D. Hypnosis
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B. Nutrition. As of modern science, nutrition is not an example of altering consciousness or have a role on consciousness.
122
In a wild turn of events, a magician pops out on stage while you and your friends are at a comedy show. A guest, after falling into a state of hypnosis, starts clucking like a chicken and later on claims he was unable to control his behavior. Is he correct?
No, Even as hypnosis has the ability to make a person be more open to suggestions, this process does not cause a person to lose control of their behavior. Therefore, he was acting out of will when the magician suggested it
123
You are observing your first clinical hypnosis on a patient diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. The psychologist has suggested he talk through the events of his trauma when he served abroad but he states he doesn’t know the details and the PhD would like to try hypnosis to retrieve these memories. What is the flaw in this set up?
Memories are malleable, consistently changing. Therefore retrieving them won’t do them much good as he may alter his memories passed on the psychologists suggestions and statements.
124
True or False: About 20% of the population are only highly hypnotizable.
True
125
What is the theory of social influence and hypnosis?
Scientists argued that people are like actors in which when they are hypnotized, they take on the role while the hypnotists is the director
126
How is dissociation theory of hypnosis a good explainer as to why hypnosis is a good clinical treatment?
Dissociation is the idea that the human consciousness is split. Therefore you are detached from your surroundings and it can range from mild space out to blacking out. Therefore with this in mind, hypnotists can split the consciousness into these states (depending on how far a person can go) and then introduce suggestions such as positive thoughts and redirecting their attention. In this way, hypnosis allows people to tap into the adaptive dissociative capacity
127
Psychoactive drugs often are associated with tolerance. Why?
These drugs alter the mood and perception of an individual (therefore their state of consciousness). With continued use at the same dose, the brain will undergo a process called neuroadaptation in which the brain’s chemistry acts to offset the drug, leading to a person to have to increase their intake to have the same mood and altered state.
128
Why are drugs able to have an effect on the body if many of them are produced externally and from other species?
These psychoactive drugs mimic the body’s natural ntsr, and in different mechanisms lead to changing the natural interaction of receptors and ntsr.
129
Describe how the placebo effect has a role in psychoactive drugs especially with alcohol.
Drugs can cause a person to take on what they believe they feel and perceive while under the influence of a particular type of substance. With some deception, they will take on these traits even if the substance is placebo.
Ex: If believe they are more aggressive during consumption of tequila, they may act out these traits with virgins as long as they believe they are drinking it
130
True or false. The class of drugs that fall under depressants are alcohol, barbiturates, opiates and amphetamine.
False. Depressants include: alcohol, barbiturates, opiates. These depress the bodily and nervous functions. Amphetamines stimulate these functions instead.
131
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What natural ntsr is limited in its production with long term use of morphine?
A. Dopamine
B. Serotonin
C. Norepinephrine
D. Endorphin
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D. Endorphin. These molecules are produced less and less with the introduction of opiates, leading to increased pain without the external source
132
Contrast how stimulants are different from depressants. What types of psychoactive drugs are these?
Stimulants, unlike the depressants function to increase the bodily and nervous functions. Some examples are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines(Rx and recreational) ecstasy, cocaine, and meth.
133
You’re working with underserved communities and want to educate the population on how recreational drugs influence the body. What is the mechanism of action of cocaine?
Cocaine mimics many ntsr in the body and causes the release of DA, NE, and Serotonin. Once Cocaine is uptake, it blocks the other natural ntsr from being reuptaken, causing them to function more in the synapse. With increased excitability by expelling their ntsr, these neurons become depleted of this particular ntsr leading to agitation and depressive crashes.
134
Contrast the mechanism of cocaine and methamphetamine in the body.
While cocaine causes the release of DA, NE, and Serotonin and delayed reuptake, methamphetamine causes the release and blockage of DA only.
135
Besides psychoactive drugs, what other things are able to create hallucinations
Typically, these include medical phenomena such as seizures, brain injuries, diseases, sensory deprivation, fever, stress or even extreme grief or depression. All these can cause neurological disturbances that spur hallucination of one kind or another.
136
You’ve been assigned to be the medical personnel on a rescue mission for a skier who had a traumatic accident in Lake Tahoe. Your team reaches the peaks at midnight where he is stranded. As you attend to him, he speaks of a bright light over and over. What is he experiencing, why?
His severe injury is prompting him to have hallucinations
137
Match the following states of consciousness with their key characteristics
(1) Alert
(2) Daydreaming
(3) Drowsy
(4) Sleep
(A) Seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind
(B) Essentially unconscious, little awareness of wold
(C) Almost asleep, but semi-aware of the world
(D) Awake and able to think
(1) Alert -> (D) Awake and able to think
(2) Daydreaming -> (A) Seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind
(3) Drowsy -> (C) Almost asleep, but semi-aware of the world
(4) Sleep -> (B) Essentially unconscious, little awareness of world
138
In many animals, there are both olfactory epithelium and a vomeronasal system. Humans lack a major part of the vomeronasal system. How does this affect the human ability to utilize smells vs. pheromones?
With the vomeronasal system impaired, humans rely little on pheromones. With an intact olfactory epithelium, humans still have a strong sense of smell.
139
How are the 5 different tastes (salty, sweet, sour, umami, and bitter) sensed by the tongue?
(A) There are areas of the tongue whose taste buds are sensitive to one of the five flavors.
(B) There are areas of the tongue whose taste bud types are sensitive to one of the five flavors.
(C) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors.
(D) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense 1 of the 5 flavors.
(C) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors.
Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors. Because of this, any flavor can be tasted on any part of the tongue!
