only deck Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
Term
A
Definition
2
Q
Place Theory
A
posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane
3
Q
Gate Control Theory of Pain
A
asserts that non-painful input closes the “gates” to painful input, preventing pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious (aka, non-painful) input is able to suppress pain
4
Q
Priming
A
a retrieval cue by recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory
5
Q
Speech Shadowing
A
an experimental technique in which subjects are told to repeat a word immediately after hearing it (usually through earphones)
6
Q
Heuristic
A
simplified principles used to make decisions; also known as “rules of thumb”. Can often lead us to a correct decision, but not always.
7
Q
Availability
Heuristic
A
a shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject. (e.g. after watching the movie Jaws, a person is more likely to fear the probability of a shark attack even though statistically it is much more uncommon… this is because the vivid image of a shark attack is still readily accessible in their mind, and they’re relying on that image as a shortcut to make an inference rather than relying on factual statistics)
8
Q
Representative
Heuristic
A
categorizing something on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the catagory; may or may not always be acccurate.
(e.g. when we see a person driving a shiny 2018 Porcshe, we are likely to categorize them as rich because we associate fancy cars with wealth)
9
Q
Base Rate Fallacy
A
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information as a shortcut to make decisions.
(e.g. a volunteer at a stroke center might state that he thinks that the prevalance rate for stroke among perople 65 years or older is probably 40%, even though actual data indicates it is actually signifantly lower; this error may be due to since he works at a stroke center, he encounters more stroke patients on a daily basis, and his experiences affects his perception of how common stroke is in the general population, resulting in base rate fallacy)
10
Q
Maslow’s Hierchy of Needs
A
explains behavior based on satisfying needs. Maslow prioritized these “needs” into five categories (of decreasing importance):
- physiological needs (highest priority)
- safety and security
- love and belonging
- self-esteem
- self-actualization (lowest priority)
11
Q
Self-Determination Theory
A
3 universal needs that motivate our actions:
- autonomy - the control over our own actions
- competence - need to excel at tasks we find difficult
- relatedness - desire to feel accepted or desired by other
12
Q
Incentive Theory
A
explains that behavior is motivated by the desire either pursue rewards or avoid punishments (e.g. when a dog does a trick in order to receive a treat)
13
Q
Expectancy-Value Theory
A
the amount of motivation needed to achieve a goal depends on what you expect the outcome to be and how valuable you view its success.
(e.g. you are more likely to be motivated to something either easy to accomplish, or something that you see as valuable to accomplish)
14
Q
Opponent-Process Theory
A
explains motivation of drug use, tolerance to drugs, and dependency on drugs; this theory states explains how our body changes its physiology to counteract a drug, leading to you needing more of that substance in order to cause the same amount of effect as it used to
(e.g. a habitual coffee drinker will need more cups of coffee to produce the amount of same effect as was caused when he first started drinking coffee. This is because, overtime, his body has physiologically become more tolerant and less sensitive to caffeine)
15
Q
role-taking
A
aids in the development of identity; seen when children experiment with other identifies by taking on the roles of others, such as when they play-pretend house or school. This practice enables a child to understand the perspectives and roles of others.
16
Q
Theory of Mind
A
the ability to sense how another person’s mind works. Once a theory of mind is developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us, becoming aware of judgments from the outside world and react to those judgments. (e.g. the ability to understand how your friend is interpreting a story that you’re telling them)
17
Q
Looking-glass Self
A
suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive/think that other people are viewing us.
(e.g. before going out with a group of friends, Jessica tries on many different outfits; with each wardrobe change, she is thinking about how others will perceive her appearance, thus her sell-concept is dependent on how SHE THINKS that others see her)
18
Q
reference group
A
the people in which we compare ourselves to that then determines our own self-concept.
(e.g. even though the average salary of doctors is about $200,000 a year, which is almost QUADRUPLE that of the national median, 89% of doctors still claim that they are not “rich”. This may be due to the fact that doctors often live in rich neighborhoods and their responses are biased since they have a different reference group comprised of millionaires)
19
Q
Biological
Perspective
(nature)
A
states that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain. Biological theorists believe that many personality traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy.
20
Q
Behaviorist Perspective
nuture
A
states that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time; therefore any therapy should focus on learnign skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques
21
Q
token economies
A
method used in inpatient therapy based on the behaviorist perspective, in which positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers. (often seen in elementary school classroooms where students who perform good behaviors/grades get “gold stars” and can eventually trade in these gold stars for toys, books, a no-homework pass, etc.)
22
Q
Social Cognitive Perspective
nature + nurture
A
takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our personality, but also how we interact with that environment. According to social cognitive theorists, the best predictor of someone’s future behavior is their past behavior in similar situations.
23
Q
reciprocal determinism
A
refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation (e.g. a stressful event can cause you to be depressed, and as a result some negative feelings can affect your behavior, such as pushing people away from your life, and thus can expose you to more stress)
24
Q
dispositional approach
A
suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by your own personality
25
situational approach
suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context
26
Schizophrenia
Suffer from delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and/or negative symptoms for more than 6 months. Thought to be related to excess DOPAMINE in the brain. Active symptoms generally preceded by Prodromal Phase, or phase of clearly deteriorating behavior with passive symptoms. Partially genetically inherited.
27
prodome
is an early symptom indicating the onset of a disease or illness. "Going downhill".
28
Positive vs. Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia
positive symptoms: (what schizophrenics DO HAVE, but healthy people don't)
• hallucinations
• delusions
• disorganized thought and behavior
negative symptoms: (what schizophrenics LACK but healthy people have)
• disturbance of affect
• avolition
29
thought broadcasting
a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one's thoughts are broadast directly from one's head to the external world
30
thought insertion
a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one thinks that external thoughts are being placed in their head
31
loosening of associations
may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift rapidly from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would not be able to follow the train of thought
32
neologisms
occurs when a person with schizophrenia invents new words
33
echolalia
catatonic behavior that involves repeating another's words
34
echopraxia
catatonic behavior that involves imitating another's actions
35
anhedonia
loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities
36
Major Depressive EPISODE
APES & CIGS. At least 5 of the following symptoms must be met for at least 2 WEEKS
- Appetite disturbances, massive weight gain or loss
- Psychomotor Symptoms, feeling "slowed down"
- Energy, low energy, always feeling tired
- Sleep disturbances
- Concentration difficulty
- Interest loss. "Anhedonia": formerly enjoyable things are no longer interesting
- Guilty and worthless feelings
- Suicidal thoughts or actions
37
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Major Depressive Disorder with a seasonal onset (winter months). May be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and is often treated with bright light therapy, where patient is exposed to a bright light for a period of time each day.
38
Dysthymia
Depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet criteria for a Major Depressive Episode.
39
Persistent Depressive Disorder
Suffering from Dysthymia for a long period of time, generally for at least 2 YEARS. May have occasional major depressive episodes.
40
Major Depressive DISORDER
At least one major depressive episode which causes significant distress or impairment of functioning.
Biological Markers:
- High glucose metabolism in the amygdala, aka the emotional center of the brain
- hippocampal atrophy
- high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- decreased noreptinepherine, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression)
41
Bipolar I Disorder
Manic Episodes with or WITHOUT Major Depressive Episodes
| mnemonic: bipolar 1 is run (because a maniac runs wild
42
Bipolar II Disorder
Hypomania WITH Major Depressive Episodes
| mnemonic: bipolar 2 is blue (requires a major depressive episode
43
Hypomania
Energetic and optimistic, but typically doesn't impair functioning or have psychotic features
44
Cyclothymic Disorder
cycling between hypomania and dysthymia
45
Manic Episodes
DIG FAST. At least 3 of the following symptoms must be met for at least one week along with a persistently elevated mood.
- Distracted easily
- Insomnia
- Grandiosity
- Flight of Ideas (racing thoughts, fast thinkings)
- Agitated easily
- Speech (Pressured, increased talkativeness)
- Thoughtlessness, or high risk behavior
46
Monoamine/
| Catecholamine Theory of Depression
states that:
• too much norepinephrine & serotinin in the synapse leads to Mania
• too little norepinephrine & serotonin in the synapse leads to Depression.
47
Agoraphobia
an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape. These individuals tend to be uncomfortable leaving their homes for fear of a panic attack or execerbation of another mental illness
48
Dissociative Amnesia
Amnesia not due to a neurological disorder but often times trauma. It is characterized by an inability to recall past experiences
49
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Multiple personality disorder, where 2+ personalities recurrently take control of a person's behavior. Usually results from severe abuse as a child (e.g. as portrayed in the movie Split)
50
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Occurs after experiencing or witnessing traumatic event. Consists of following symptoms for at least one month (else called Acute Stress Disorder)
Intrusion: Reliving events including flashbacks or nightmares
Avoidance: Deliberate attempt to avoid people, places, objects, or actions associated with trauma
Negative Cognitive: Inability to recall key features of the event, moody, distant, negative view of world
Arousal: Easily startled, irritable, anxious, reckless behavior, insomnia
51
dissociative fugue
a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities. Individuals in a fugue state are confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity. Significantly they may actually believe that they are someone else, with a complete backstory
52
depersonalization
Individuals feel detached from their own mind and body. (e.g. an "out of body experience"; they feel like they feel like they're watching themselves in a dream or behind a movie screen)
53
derealization
Individuals feel detached from their surroundings. (e.g. feeling like they're in a dream and the world is not theirs; their possessions are not truly theirs; their surroundings are not one they can help to be in)
54
Somatic Sympton Disorder
Individual is experiencing symptoms and is disproportionately concerned about it, devotes a ton of time and energy to it, or is overly anxious about it. Symptoms may or may not be related to underlying medical condition
55
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Like Somatic Symptom Disorder, but without the symptoms. Individuals are consumed with the idea of having or developing a serious medical condition. Can obsessively check themselves for illness, or avoid medical appointments altogether.
56
Conversion Disorder
Unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions, usually after traumatic event. (e.g. claming to become blind as a result of seeing a traumatic event, yet there is no evidence of true neurological damagge)
57
la belle indifférence
seen in Conversion Disorder where the person may by suprisingly unconcerned by a symptom
58
ego-syntonic
Individual precieves their abnormal behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with goals. (e.g. thinking everyone else is wrong when they say you have a problem)
59
ego-dystonic
the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
60
Cluster A personality disorders
Paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid disorders. Considered odd or eccentric behavior.
"Weird."
61
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Constant distrust of others. Constantly suspicious of other's motives. May be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia.
62
Cluster B personality disorders
Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic. Overly dramatic and emotional behavior.
"Wild."
63
Cluster C personality disorders
Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive. Anxious or fearful behavior.
"Worried"
64
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Disregard for rights of others. Repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for bad actions. More common in males than females. (e.g. showing no guilt for serious crime such as murder)
65
Borderline Personality Disorder
Instable behavior, mood, and self image. Often intense and unstable relationships. Intense fear of abandonment. Use "splitting" as a defense mechanisms where others are either pure good or evil. Suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common. Twice as common in females.
66
splitting
a defense mechanism used in borderline personality disorder in which the individual view others as all good or all bad (an an angel vs. devil mentality)
67
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Attention seeker. Drama queen. May use seductive behavior to gain attention.
68
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Sense of grandeur, preoccupied with fantasies of own success, need for constant attention and admiration. Entitled. Very fragile self esteem and concerned with how others fiew them.
69
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Odd or eccentric thinking. Have ideas of reference (everything is directed towards them...everything has a meaning in their own life somehow. There are no coincidences) as well as magical thinking
70
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Detachment from social relationships, restricted emotional expression. Little desire for socializing. Don't have close friends, poor social skills.
71
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Extreme shyness and fear of rejection. See oneself as socially inept and isolated. Intense desire for social affection and acceptance. Tend to stay in the same job, life situation, and relationships despite wanting to change
72
Dependent Personality Disorder
Need continuous reassurance. Emotionally dependent on one specific person, such as parent or significant other
73
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
Perfectionistic and inflexible. Likes rules and order. Stubborn, routine, no desire to change. NOT SYNONYMOUS TO OCD. OCD is ego-dystonic (Must wash hands because of germs) while OCPD is ego-syntonic (I like rules and order). OCPD is lifelong.
74
Parkinson's Disease
Damage to dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra for proper stimulation of the basal ganglia.
Symptoms:
- Slow Movement
- Resting Tremor
- Pill-rolling tremor (rolling fingers and thumbs together like you're making a tiny booger)
- mask-like facial expressions
- Shuffling gait
- Cogwheel rigitiy (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement)
75
Alzheimer's Disease
Dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and tendency to misplace things. Late stages include changes in mood, personality, poor judgement, loss of initiative, loss of procedural memory. Genetically linked.
Biological Markers:
- Diffuse Atrophy in brain CT/MRI
- Flattened Sulci in cerebral cortex
- Enlarged cerebral ventricles
- Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes
- Low Acetylcholine levels
- Low choline acetyltransferase enzyme
- Low metabolism in temporal and parietal lobs
- B-amyloid plaques (senile plaques)
- Neurofibrillar Tangles or hyperphosphorylated tau protein
76
Michelangelo Phenomenon
states that the concept of "self" is made up of both the intrapersonal self (the ideas you have regarding your own abilities, traits, and beliefs) and the interpersonal self (the manner in which other people influence the creation of your ideal self.
Interdependent individuals influence and "sculpt" each other to become closer to their ideal selves. Opposite of Blueberry Phenomenon.
77
Blueberry Phenomenon
Interdependent individuals bring out the worst in each other.
78
Social Action
actions and behaviors that we are conscious of and performing based on the certain people that are around. It is based on the idea that humans will behave in different ways depending on their social environment and how their behavior will affect/cause a reaction from those around them (e.g. our social action is different when we are with our college buddies vs. when we are during a medical school interview)
79
Social Facilitation
states that a person will perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others. (aka "social" society "faciliates" their performance success)
80
Yerks-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation
illustrates that for SIMPLE tasks, increased arousal (such as being in the presence of others) leads to stronger performance... BUT for COMPLEX tasks, increased arousal can lead to a decline in performance
81
Deindividuation
Being in the presence of a large group provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity, which can dramatically change behavior. May lead to antinormative behavior such as violence during a riot.
82
Anti normative Behavior
any behavior against the norm.
83
Bystander Effect
Individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. The more people who are standing by, the less likely someone is to help. (This is attributed to social cues. If no one seems alarmed of emergency, then individual is less likely to think that there is an emergency.)
In low danger scenarios, bystanders less likely to intervene. In high danger scenarios, bystanders are more likely to intervene.
A group made up of strangers has a slower response to emergency than a group of friends or well acquainted individuals.
84
Social Loafing
The tendency of an individual to put in less effort when in a group setting than they would individually. (e.g. putting in less effort in group powerpoint projects than you would if the project was to be completed individually)
85
Peer Pressure
The social influence placed on an individual by others who are considered equals (peers) than can modify or continue certain behavior, attitudes, or beliefs
86
Identity Shift Effect
Explains the mechanism of Peer Pressure: when an individual's state of harmony is threatened by social rejection, the individual will conform to norms of the group. This causes the individual to experience internal conflict, so he/she will undergo an identity shift where he adopts the standards of the group as his own to elimiate cognitive dissonance.
(this is seen many times on TV episodes where the main character pretends to be somebody they're not, in order to "fit in" or impress sombody. They are threatened by social rejection, so they conform to the norms of the other character's group.)
87
Cognitive Dissonance
Simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. Usually leads to internal discomfort which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion.
88
Solomon Asch Conformity Experiment
Performed by Soloman Asch to show that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by a group. Participants were placed in a group with confederates and were given a card with a line on it along with a reference card with three lines of different sizes. They had to to unanimously decide which line A, B, or C matched the length of the first card. Confederates were secretly told to respond correctly or incorrectly. The results showed that the participants would sometimes provide answers they knew to be untrue if it avoided going against the group: the urge toward conformity could outweight the desire to provide the correct answer.
89
Social Interaction
Explores the ways in which 2+ individuals can both shape each other's behavior.
90
Group Polarization
Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. Also called "Choice Shift".
91
Groupthink
Phenomenon where desire for harmony or conformity results in a group coming to an incorrect or poor decision. This desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking. (e.g. unity of the group > evaluating decisions for better alternatives, leading to possible errors)
92
Irving Janis
Studied effects of extreme stress on group cohesiveness including disastrous American foreign policy decisions. Examined 8 factors indicitive of groupthink:
- Illusion of invulnerability, optimistic and encouraging risk taking
- Collective Rationalization, ignoring warnings against idea of the group
- Illusion of morality, belief the group's decisions are morally correct
- Excessive stereotyping, construction of stereotypes against outside opinions
- Pressure for conformity, viewing opposing arguments as disloyal to the group
- Self-censorship, the withholding of opposing views
- Illusion of unanimity, false sense of agreement within the group
- Mindguards, appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views
93
Culture
Beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. Learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, then adopting them.
94
Assimilation
Process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. In terms of migrant assimilation, there are four primary factors to assess completeness of assimilation:
socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage
95
Ethnic Enclaves
Slow assimilation. Locations with high concentrations of a specific ethnicity (Chinatown, Little Italy)
96
Multiculturalism
Communities or societies containing multiple cultures. "Cultural Mosaic" compared to assimilation being a "melting pot".
97
Subcultures
Groups of people within a culture that distinguish temselves from the primary culture from which they belong. Can be formed based off of race, gener, ethnicity, sexuality, etc. Subcultures can be perceived as negative if they begin to disagree with the primary culture, which can lead to counterculture.
98
Counterculture
A subculture that directly opposes the majority culture and deliberately opposes primary cultural norms. (e.g. a biker gang that sells a shit ton of illegal drugs, breaks the law, and lives by their own laws)
99
Socialization
Process of developing, inheriting, and spreading social norms, customs, and beliefs.
1) Primary Socialization: During childhood, when we initially learn the societal norms, primarily through our parents.
2) Secondary Socialization: Learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society, outside the home. (e.g. learning how to act at school, in the workplace, etc.)
100
Cultural Diffusion
The spread of cultural norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture
101
Cultural Learning
AKA Cultural Transmission: the manner in which society socializes its members
102
Anticipatory Socialization
Process by which a person prepares for future changes (occupations, living situations, relationships)
103
Resocialization
Where one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change. E.g. Training military personel to obey orders
104
Mores
Widely observed social normes (e.g. being truthful)
105
Taboo
Socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible (e.g. incest or cannabalism)
106
Folkways
Social behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions; common manners (e.g. saying thanks to someone who held the elevator door open for you)
107
Agent of Socialization
Influencing factor that affects socialization. Includes family, peers, religion, ethnicity, workplace, mass media, school, government, geographical location, etc.
108
Stigma
Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society. (e.g. stigma against fat people or dwarfs as if they are placed in a different category than normal society)
109
Labeling Theory
Theory that labels given to people affect how others respond to that person as well as their own self-image. This can lead to behavior conforming with society, or deviating from it.
110
Differential Association Theory
People learn to become offenders from their environment. Through interactions with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, methods and motives for criminal behavior.
111
Strain Theory
Says that deviance is a natural reaction to the inability to achieve a normative social goal while staying within a limiting social structure. Therefore, deviance is a behavior that aims at achieving a socially desirable goal using antinormative behavior.
112
Deviance
Violation of the norms, rules, or expectations within a society. Functionalists believe that deviance is necessary in a society in order to establish clear perception of social norms and acceptable bondaries, encourage unity within a society, and promote social change.
113
Normative Conformity
Desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection (e.g. pretending to like Justin Bieber because your friends all love him and you dont want to be a social outcast, even though you secretly think he’s a moron)
114
Internalization
Outwardly agreeing to conform while also inwardly agreeing with the ideas of the group
115
Identification
Outwardly agreeing to conform while not personally accepting the ideas.
116
Philip Zimbardo
Directed the Stanford Prison Experiment to study conformity. Prisoners and Guards both conformed to roles of being submissive and abusive, respectively. When interviewed afterwards, they were shocked at their behavior.
117
Stanley Milgram
Obedience experiment with the teacher and learner, and electricuting the learner. The teachers would increasingly shock the patients and hurt them, even at their screams in agony and requests to stop the experiment, because the person running the experiment told them to with demanding language. Milgram was surprised at the level of obedience that was shown. Were able to get 65% of participants to administer maximum shocks of 450 V. Repeated tests have shown at least 60% of people will obey even if they do not wish to continue.
118
Social Cognition
the ways in which we think about others and how these ideas impact our behavior. Our attitudes about a certain person, aka the way in which we perceive them, impacts the ways we behave toward them
(e.g. if you know that your sister's new boyfriend has cheated on her many times behind her back, you would have a negative opinion of him. So when your sister introduces you to him for the first time, you might behave differently toward him than you would with another stranger and be rude to him)
119
Affective
| Component of Attitude
The way a person FEELS towards something. Emotional component of attitude.
"I am SCARED of snakes. I HATE snakes. I have a NEGATIVE FEELINGS about snakes."
120
Behavioral
| Component of Attitude
The way a person ACTS with respect to something.
| "I RUN AWAY when I see a snake. I SCREAM when I see snakes. I THROW ROCKS at snakes to make them go away."
121
Cognitive
| Component of Attitude
The way a person THINKS about something. Often a justification for the other two components.
"I KNOW that snakes are poisonous. I KNOW that snakes can bite. I KNOW that it can be dangerous to be near a snake." Thus, this *cognitive thinking* about snakes provides a reason for a me to be afraid (affective component) and avoid them (behavioral component).
122
Functional Attitudes Theory
this theory states that attitudes serve four functions: Knowledge, Ego-Expression, Adaptation, and Ego-Defense.
1) Knowledge: knowing attitudes of others help you predict their behavior
- (e.g. I know my mom has a bad attitude about me staying out late, so I predict that she will yell at me if I come home at 3 AM)
2) Ego-Expression: allows you to communicate and express feelings to solidify self-identity
- (e.g. I want to identify as being open-minded, so I will need to keep positive attitudes about different people's opinions)
3) Adaptive: to be accepted socially, you must have the right attitudes about the right things
- (e.g. a girl who is trying to get a guy to like her might try to adapt her attitude on sports and starts rooting for the team he likes)
4) Ego-Defensive: allows you to justify actions that you know are wrong
- (e.g. developing bad attitude towards math because you aren't good at it)
123
knowledge function of attitude
knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior (e.g. knowing that your friend cares strongly about politics would allow to you predict that they would vote in the upcoming presidential election)
124
ego-expression function of attitude
allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity (e.g. if I identify as a Carolina Panthers Football Fan, I might wear a hat with a Panthers logo that helps me identify myself as a fan of that team)
125
adaptive function of attitude
the idea that an individual will be accepted socially if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed. (e.g. if having a caring attitude is socially acceptable, therefore if I will be socially accepted if I am a caring person)
126
ego-defensive function of attitude
allow us to protect our self-esteem or justify our actions that we know are wrong (e.g. people who are bad at math may develop a negative attitude towards the subject: "math is stupid and useless")
127
Learning Theory of Attitude
Attitudes are developed through different forms of learning (observational, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, etc). E.g. attitude towards candy after tasting it and learning its sweet.
128
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude
Separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information from those that think deeply about a situation (Central Route Processing) to those who focus on superficial details such as appearance or catchphrases (Peripheral Route Processing). Where they fall on the continuum dictates how they will approach new information and the possibility of it to cause an attitude change. Going through Central Route Processing leads to greater solidification of attitude, if accepted.
129
Social Cognitive Theory of Attitude
People learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behavior of others, influences of personal factors, AND the environment. These three factors are related and constantly affecting each other. Supported by Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
130
Ascribed Status
a person's social status that is given involuntarily.
| e.g. race, ethnicity, sex, background, etc.
131
Achieved Status
a person's social status that is gained strictly as result of one's efforts or choices.
(e.g. being a valedictorian or a doctor)
132
Master Status
a person's social status that which he or she is most identified with. It is typically the most important status they hold because it affects all aspects of that person's life. It is also generally how people view themselves and holds a symbolic value. Master statuses can also lead to pigeonholing
133
pigeonholing
viewing an individual only through the lens of their master status, without regard to any other of their personal characteristics
(e.g. relying on someone's astrological sign (Scorpio, Leo, Pisces) as a guide to their personality, rather than looking at other traits they have)
134
Role Conflict vs. Role Strain
- Role Conflict is the difficulty in satisfying the requirements and expectations of BETWEEN multiple roles (Being a doctor, a father, and a husband)
- Role strain is the difficulty in satisfying the requirements and expectations WITHIN THE same role (Buying diapers, changing diapers, potty train, feeding the baby, stop the baby from crying, etc.)
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Role Exit
Dropping of one role in favor of another, usually due to role conflict. (after graduation, exiting the role of a college kid and adopting a role of a young professional)
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Primary Groups vs Secondary Groups
Primary Groups: Direct interactions with close bonds that tend to last long periods of time, such as family or best friends.
Secondary Groups: Interactions are superficial with few emotional bonds. Form and dissolve with out any special significance (e.g. classmates working on a group project).
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Gemeinschaft
means "Community" in German
- groups that are unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, loyalty, or geography and have more direct bonds, like famililes or close neighborhoods
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Gesellschaft
means "Society" in German
- groups formed due to mutual self-interests working together towards the same goal and have more indirect interactions, such as employees working under the same engineering company
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System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)
Developed in the 1970s from the technique "Interaction Process Analysis". It believes that there are three dimensions of interactions:
1) Dominance vs Submission
2) Friendliness vs Unfriendliness
3) Instrumentally Controlled vs Emotionally Expressive
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Group conformity
Individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal. Conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group.
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Characteristic Institution
The basic organization of society, today is found in Bureaucracy.
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Bureaucracy
Rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. Usually slow to change and less efficient than other organizations. Setup is basically like every corporation in America in that it includes salary, promotions, etc. (such as the FBI)
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Iron Law of Oligarchy
States that democratic and bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group.
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McDonaldization
Refers to a shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.
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Basic Model of Emotional Expression
Established by Charles Darwin. States that since emotions are expressed universally across all cultures, it is thus an evolutionary trait.
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Appraisal Model
Says there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but there is a cognitive precursor to emotional expression.
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Social Construction Model
Assumes there is no biological basis for emotions, but emotions are based on experiences and situational context alone. One must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation.
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Display Rules
the cultural expectations of a certain emotion (e.g. in some cultures, it is considered taboo to show sadness at a funeral while in other cultures crying loudly is expected)
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Cultural Syndrome
Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. Influece display rules.
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Impression Management
Attempt to influence how others perceive us. Also called Self-Presentation.
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Authentic Self
Who we actually are, both positive and negative.
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Ideal Self
Who we would like to be under ideal circumstances.
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Tactical Self
Who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us.
similar to the Ought Self.
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Self-Disclosure
Impression management strategy.
| Giving information about oneself to establish an identity
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Managing Appearances
Impression management strategy.
| Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.
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Ingratiation
Impression management strategy.
Using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over.
(e.g. "sweet talking")
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Aligning Actions
Impression management strategy.
Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.
(e.g. providing an excuse for a poor performance or laughing off an inappropriate comment as a joke)
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Alter-Casting
Impression management strategy.
Imposing an identity onto another person.
(e.g. when a friend says to you "a good friend would let me borrow his bike". This imposes the identity of a "bad friend" upon you if you don't lend him your bike.)
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Dramaturgical Approach
Erving Goffman's description of impression management through the use of the metaphor that individuals are actors in a theatrical performance and creating images for themselves in various situations.
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Front Stage Self
Actor is in front of the audience, performing according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see.
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Back Stage Self
Actor is not being observed and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image.
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
The nucleus of the hypothalamus; responsible for feelings of fullness (e.g. if you damage a rat’s ventromedial hypothalamus, the rat would eat excessive amounts of food to the point of severe obesity because it would never feel full)
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Stereotype
thought
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Prejudice
behavior
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Discrimination
action
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Functionalism
theoretical framework that explains how components of society fit together to create a cohesive whole (e.g. views society as if it's a living organism, and as such, if society is to function smoothly, its parts and systems must work together in harmony. When all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state. If they do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathologic state)
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Functions
according to Functional theorists, they are the beneficial consequences of people's actions
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Dysfuntions
according to Functional theorists, they are the harmful consequences of people's actions because they undermine a social system's equilibrium
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Manifest Function
intended actions that benefits society (e.g. the intended purpose of institutions like schools is to educate students on subjects such as math, history, and science)
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Latent Function
unintended positive conssequences on other parts of society that result from manifest functions (e.g. an unstated or unrecognized latent function of schools is that it creates stronger interpersonal bonds among students and provide a sense of identity for an individual, this is known as the "hidden curriculum" of education)
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Conflict Theory
theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order and how these differentials contribute to the maintainence of social order; these power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources (e.g the stronger gorup rules the weaker group and creates the rules; demonstrated when 10-year olds "rule" the playground and control the younger and weaker 6-year olds)
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Symbolic Interactionism
theoretial framework that studies social interaction and communication through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols (e.g. sign language, "thumbs-up", "the middle finger", facial expressions, hugs, body language)
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Social Constructionism
theoretical framework that uncovers the ways in which individuals and groups construct/create their own perceived social norms; can be applied intangible concepts such as how a society defines honor and justice is dependent on the interactions and decisions of individuals within that particualr society. Notably, because these concepts depend on society itself, they are subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time (e.g. a $100 bill does not inherently have significant value by itself. It is only because we as a society attach it with a value that it can be traded for goods and services; other examples of social constructs include work ethic, acceptable dress, and gender roles)
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Rational Choice Theory
focuses on decicion-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual; in this theory, an individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ratio (e.g. making a mental pros and cons list before deciding what to spend your money on).
This theory is contradicted by the concept of altruism.
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Exchange Theory
an extension of the rational choice theory but applied to social interaction.
posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments (e.g. a behavior that is met with approval by others will be reinforced and its continuation will be encouraged; conversely, behaviors that are met with disapproval by others or punishment will be discouraged)
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Feminist Theory
attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender; focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination
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Glass Ceiling
the phenomenon that explains how women are less frequently promoted in the workpalce and may have more difficulty attaining top-level administrative positions within a company
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Material Culture
includes the physical items one associaties with a given society, such as artifacts, artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools; often visibile during ceremonies, such as birthdays, weddings, and funerals. Examples of American material culture include barbecue, baseball, rock & roll, and the American flag.
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Symbolic Culture
(also called nonmaterial culture) focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people; these may be encoded in mottos, songs, or catch-phrases. Examples of American symbolic culture include phrases like free enterprise and life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
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Intersectionality
the interplay between multiple demographic factors, especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression
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Kinsey Scale
scores sexuality from a scale of 0-6, with 0 being completely heterosexual and 6 being completely homosexual
Note: a Kinsey Scale score of 3 would equate to bisexuality.
(a young man claims to have had sexual relationships with mostly other men, although he occasionally has been attracted to women at times. Thus this man would likely score a 4 or 5 on the KInsey Scale)
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Environmental Justice
the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, nationality, or income with respect to environmental laws and policies; an example of a clear violation of this would be moving an urban factory's toxic waste to a less affluent area of the city, placing the people living in these low-income areas at greater risk
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dependency ratio
a ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members. The economically dependent are those considered either too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the age-working population (approximately between the ages of 18-65). The dependency ratio can be increased by factors such as an increasing aging population.
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Sleeper Effect
the phenomena where persuasive propaganda that you originally disagree with becomes more agreeable over time because over time you forget the context of the propaganda given and accept it because it's in your memory (aka you sleep on it)
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emotional vs. analytical vs. creative vs. interpersonal intelligence
- emotionally intelligent people are self-aware and can delay gratification in the pursuit of long-term rewards, rather than being overtaken by immediate impulses.
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Fertility Rate
is measured as the number of children per woman during her lifetime
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Conduction Aphasia
the inability of a person to repeat what they hear. Caused by damage to the Arcuate Fasiculus, which is the connection between Broca’s and Wernicke’s Area
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Anomic Aphasia
the inability of a person to produce correct words for a topic in which they'd like to speak; aka the inability to NAME something; ”a” = without, ”nom” = name; (e.g. a girl looking at an orange in front of her can describe that the shape is round and the color is around, but they still have trouble identifying that the object is indeed an orange)
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Spreading Activation
the phenomenon by which one concept within a semantic network becoming active subconsciously activates related and semantically-linked concepts (e.g. a 3-year-old girl trying to remember the name of a fruit, such as apple, is better at recalling it when she is first presented with other red objects, such as a stop sign or a fire truck)
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Iconic Memory
a form of visual sensory memory that fades very quickly and is almost always lost, unless the info is quickly attended to; a partial report of iconic memory is more acurate than the whole-report (e.g. your memory of the layout of a word search puzzle; it would be easier to recall a row of the puzzle rather than the whole puzzle)
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Self-Reference Effect
the tendency for you to best recall info that you can personally relate to your own experiences (e.g. demonstrated by the "The Real World" Kaplan MCAT paragraphs in the review books)
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Self-Serving Bias
the attribution of your successes to internal factors... and your failures to external factors. (e.g. "I made a 528 on my MCAT because I'm smart and hard-working." vs, "I made a 490 on the MCAT because the AAMC is stupid and gives an impossible exam)"
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Hindsight Bias
the error of seeing past events as more predictable than they actually are; also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along effect" (e.g. when Mr. Know It All is wrong: "well in hindsight I knew this was gonna happen....")
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belief-preserverance
a bias that refers to the inability to reject your particular belief, despite evidence to the contrary (e.g. believing that your girlfriend is trustworthy even when consistent evidence has shown that she has cheated on you multiple times)
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counter-balancing
refers to an experimental precaution where you present stimuli in a random order in order to eliminate the possibility to time effects
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Cross-Sectional Study
a type of study design where both the exposure and outcome status are taken AT THE SAME TIME
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Cohort Study
a type of study design where the study sample is recruited based on their Exposure Status (yes/no) and then follows the patient over time to see if they developed a certain Outcome/Disease.
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Case-Control Study
a type of study design where the study sample is recruited based on their Outcome Status (yes/no) and then finds out the odds that they were exposed to a certain determinant
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Generalizability
in studies, it is the application of the results to either a significantly wider population or across different settings; it basically assess how well the results of a particular study applies to the general population
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Hawk-Dove Game Theory
explains reasons for actions in an environment of pure competition between individuals centered upon the struggle for a limited food resource; it includes:
- altruism
- spite
- cooperation
- selfishness
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cataplexy
a symptom of narcolepsy that invovles a loss of muscle control and a sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger
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REM Rebound
a symptom that occurs as a result of sleep deprivation that results in an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
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James-Lange Theory
stimulus ---> physiological response ---> emotional response
| "I see a ghost. My heart has started to beat fast. I feel threatened because my heart is racing."
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Cannon-Bard Theory
stimulus ---> both physiological + emotional response simultaneously
"I see a ghost. My heart is beating fast AND I'm scared AT THE SAME DAMN TIME"
(e.g. a person with a severed sympathetic nerve fiber can still feel scared)
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Schachter-Singer Theory
stimulus ---> physiological response and identifying reason of the stimulus ---> emotional response
"I see a ghost. My heart is beating fast. I think to myself, is this situation a stressful situation (appraisal)? If yes, then I must be threatened by the ghost's presence."
• Thefore, when your heart continues to race and you still feel nervous DESPITE telling yourself that taking the MCAT isn't a stressful situation, this contradicts the Schachter-Singer Theory.
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Lazarus Theory
stimulus ---> cognitive appraisal ----> emotion + physiological response
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vicarious learning
learning by observation
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pragmatics
in language, refers to the dependence of language on the context of a situation and pre-existing knowledge; the manner in which we speak may differ depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience (e.g. "pardon me, do you mind if I share this seat with you?" vs. "Yo scoot over bud")
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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
| also known as the Whorfian Hypothesis
suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of our language; basically, it is LANGUAGE that affects the way we think, rather than the other way around. (e.g. the Inuit tribe's language has many different words for the different types of snow, while English language has very few. Thus, the Inuit culture has a greater understanding of the concept of snow)
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Nativist Theory
emphasizes the innate capacity to learn a language; language is ingrained in us (e.g. deaf children form different cultures can still spontaneously create a system of signs for communication when brought together, indicating that their culture and environment did not play a role)
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Learning Theory
emphasizes operant conditioning in that all children have the capacity to learn any language, BUT they only acquire the language that their parents or environment reinforce (e.g. although all children could learn proper english, children in less afluent areas speak with slang and improper grammer because they adopt it from their surroundings)
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Social Interactionist Theory
acknowledges both the social and biological processes of language acquisition (e.g. language is learned by both biological and social factors)
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Zone of Proximal Development
concept coined by Vygotzky that refers to the skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Gaining these skills requires the help of a more-knowledgable other, typically a parent or adult (e.g. a child may struggle to ride a bicycle on her own, but with the help and guidance of a parent she may be successful. Thus according to Vygotzky, this skill is currently within the child's zone of proximal development)
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Instinct Theory
states that people perform certain behaviors because of instincts that are evolutionary programmed (e.g. ducks migrating for the winter; bears hibernating)
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Arousal Theory
states that people perform actions in order to maintain arousal at an optimal (medium) level, summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson Law
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Drive Reduction Theory
states that motivation arises from the desire to eliminate uncomfortable internal states of tension (e.g. my motivation for getting up and walking to the vending machine stemmed from my internal drive to reduce my thirstiness)
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Anomie
a state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualsm, social inequality, and isolation
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Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
a brain disorder that results from long-term alcohol abuse that leads to a deficiency in vitamin B1 and is characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills
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Alcohol myopia
the inability to think logically about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication (e.g. "drunk texting" your ex; jumping down a staircase when drunk rather than down because you aren't forseeing the possibilty of a bad landing)
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GABA
causes hyperpolarization (inhibitory neurotransmitter)
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Signal Detection Theory
a theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context BOTH play a role in how you perceive something
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Trait Theory
states that personality traits describe overall personality and describe it as a pattern of behavior
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Paraphilic Disorders
getting turned on by weird shit (abnormal fetishes, like getting aroused by pain, pedophilia, etc.)
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Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon
explains that you are more likely to be persuaded to perform a big task for someone when asked to perform a small task FIRST
ex: if getting a random girl's phone number is considered a large task then:
without foot-in-door technique: "hey can I get your phone number?" "no"
with foot-in-door technique: "would you like to go out for coffee?" "okay" "sounds like a plan, can I get your number first?" "sure"
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Door-In-The-Face Phenomenon
opposite of Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon; large favor is asked first, and then smaller favor second
hey mom, can I have a new car?
"no."
well then can I have 5 bucks?
"okay fine.."
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Spearman's Theory of General Intelligence
there is one general intelligence called a g-factor that people have. This theory is HIGHLY supported by research evidence because people who tend to excel in one area (like reading), also tend to do well in other areas (like math).
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L.L. Thurnstone's Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
7 factor theory of intelligence; factors all depend on each other
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Garner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
7-9 INDEPENDENT intelligences (they do NOT affect one another)
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
3 independent intelligences that lead to real world success:
• analytical intelligence
• practical intelligence
• creative intelligence
