Operant Conditioning I

Question 1

What does operant conditioning focus on?

Answer 1

Focus on reflexive and automatic
responses, where the target is the
outcome and is conditioned through
repeated pairing

Question 2

What are operant behaviours? How are they different from operant conditioning?

Answer 2

• Actions influenced by their consequences

* Effect on behaviour is operant conditioning

Question 3

Involves the strengthening or weakening of a behaviour as a result of the ______.

Answer 3

Consequence

Question 4

Behaviours are _____ or goal-directed.

Answer 4

Voluntary

Question 5

The consequence of the behaviour affects future

occurrences of that behaviour- T/F?

Answer 5

True

Question 6

Reinforcers _____behaviours whilst Punishers ____ a behaviour

Answer 6

strengthen; reduce

Question 7

Who was Edwin Lee Thorndike? What did he study?

Answer 7

• The intellectual ability of animals could only be assessed through systematic observation
• Studied animal intelligence by
studying animal learning
• His most famous experiments
involved cats

Question 8

Explain the puzzlebox study (1898)

Answer 8

• Hungry cat placed in
puzzle box with a dish of food outside
• Learning required to escape from the box
• Accidental escape led to (gradual) increase in speed of
escape

Question 9

What did we learn from the puzzlebox study regarding the law of effect?

Answer 9

• Law of Effect:
−Behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
−Behaviours that result in pleasant consequences will be more likely in the future.
−Behaviours that result in unpleasant consequences will be less likely in the future.

Question 10

Who is B.F Skinner & what was he well-known for?

Answer 10

• “Skinner Box”
• The rat earns food pellets by
pressing a lever
• The experimenter controls the
contingencies, but the rat is free to respond at any time
• Rate of behaviour is controlled by the conditions
• Adapted for pigeons with a
disc

Question 11

Skinner said there are two types of behaviours- what are they?

Answer 11

• Reflexive type (involuntary) named respondent behaviour
• Operant (voluntary) behaviours controlled by
consequences

Question 12

Skinner focused on _______ of behaviour rather than assumptions about thoughts and feelings

Answer 12

Probabilities

Question 13

What are the three components of the operant conditioning process?

Answer 13

1. A response the produces a consequence (e.g. lever =
   food)
2. Consequence serves to increase or decrease probability
   of response in 1 (e.g. to press or not to press)
3. Discriminative stimulus preceding the response signals the consequence is available (e.g. tone = lever = food)

Question 14

What is a reinforcer & what is the symbol for it?

Answer 14

(S^R)

Consequence following behaviour which increases the probability of the behaviour in the future

Question 15

What is a punisher & what is the symbol for it?

Answer 15

(S^P)

Consequence following behaviour which decreases the probability of the behaviour in the future

Question 16

What is extinction?

Answer 16

Reduction of behaviour due to withdrawal of reinforcers

Question 17

What is a discriminative stimulus & what is the symbol for it?

Answer 17

(S^D)
• Indicates that a response will be followed by a contingency
(reinforcer or punisher)
• ‘set the occasion for’… so increases/decreases probability

Question 18

What is positive reinforcement? Give example.

Answer 18

When behaviour is strengthen because it is followed by a reinforcing or rewarding stimulus

Smile at a person → The person smiles at you
R —> SR

Question 19

What is negative reinforcement? Give example.

Answer 19

• When behaviour is strengthen
because it is followed by the removal an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

Take an aspirin → Eliminate a Headache
R —-> SR

Question 20

What is positive punishment? Give example.

Answer 20

The addition of an unpleasant stimulus to hopefully weaken the tendency of you doing it again

You don’t do your homework —-> your dad hits you :(
P —–> SP

Question 21

What is negative punishment? Give example.

Answer 21

The removal of a pleasant stimulus is used as a punishment to weaken the tendency of you doing it again

You don’t do your homework —-> mum takes away your phone

Question 22

What is escape learning?

Answer 22

learning of a response that allows a subject to escape an aversive stimulus (e.g. switch off an electric shock)

Question 23

What is avoidance learning?

Answer 23

Learning of a response that allows a subject to avoid an aversive stimulus (e.g. learning that when a light comes on the shock is about to start and they must press the bar to prevent the electric shock).

Question 24

What is the differenc between a reinforcer & a punisher?

Answer 24

Reinforcement refers to strengthening a
behaviour – punishment refers to weakening a
tendency to make a response.

Question 25

What are two types of reinforcers?

Answer 25

• Primary reinforcers: unlearned, inherently reinforcing because they satisfy a biological need (e.g. food, water, warmth, sex). • Secondary reinforcers: (conditioned reinforcers) that are learnt or become reinforcers after being associated with primary reinforcers (e.g. money).

Question 26

What are other terms used for primary & secondary reinforcers?

Answer 26

• Intrinsic (e.g. enjoyment) vs Extrinsic reinforcers (e.g. money) • Natural vs Contrived reinforcers

Question 27

It is important for learning that an organism wants to take part in activities and learns new skills via desired behaviours, not because it is scared of a consequence/being punished. T/F?

Answer 27

True

Question 28

What are the fice variables affecting OC?

Answer 28

* Contingency * Contiguity * Reinforcer characteristics * Behaviour characteristics * Motivating operations

Question 29

How does contingency affect OC?

Answer 29

The extent to which the behaviour and the consequence are correlated. • The stronger the correlation, the more effective the reinforcer is likely to be. • Hammond (1980): If rats were just as likely to get food by not pressing a leaver, than they were if they pressed the leaver they would stop pressing the leaver.

Question 30

How does contiguity affect OC?

Answer 30

• The gap between a behaviour and its consequence – in this case the reinforcement • In general, the shorter the interval the faster learning occurs. • If we leave too much time between a behaviour and the consequence there may be room for other behaviours to have occurred and what is learned then becomes confused. • However, learning can occur despite a delay in reinforcement, particularly if the delay is preceded by a particular stimulus.

Question 31

The ____ and ______ of a reinforcer can influence conditioning

Answer 31

size; strength

Question 32

Do smaller or larger reinforcers work best?

Answer 32

Generally, a large reinforcer will be more effective than a small one. BUT frequent small reinforcers may work better.

Question 33

Certain aspects of a behaviour may be easier to learn | than others: T/F? Why?

Answer 33

True. Task difficulty will vary with species and that it is easier to train/teach behaviours that are somewhat aligned to an animals natural behaviour

Question 34

What is a motivating operation?

Answer 34

Anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence – either in terms of increasing or decreasing its effectiveness

Question 35

What are the two types of motivating operations?

Answer 35

• Establishing operations: increase the effectiveness of a consequence - The greater the deprivation the more powerful the reinforcer • Abolishing operations: decrease the effectiveness of a consequence

Question 36

What are the four theories of reinforcement?

Answer 36

1. Drive Reduction Theory (Hull) 2. Premack’s Principle (Premack) 3. Response Deprivation Hypothesis (Timberlake & Allison) 4. Bliss Point Approach (Staddon)

Question 37

Explain Drive Reduction Theory (Hull).

Answer 37

The event is reinforcing if it is associated with a reduction of physiological drive hunger drive --> search out food ---> fridge ---> eat food----> no hunger :)

Question 38

What is incentive motivation & how does it go to disapprove Hull's DRT?

Answer 38

• Motivation derived from a property of the reinforcer rather than an internal drive state • e.g. video games, concert, collecting footy card

Question 39

What is Premack's Principle?

Answer 39

• Helps us understand what can be used as a reinforcer • High probability behaviour can be used to reinforce a low probability behaviour • Reinforcers as behaviours and reinforcement as a sequence of two behaviours 1. Behaviour being reinforced 2. Behaviour that is the reinforcer * pressing lever --> low probability behaviour * eating food (when hungry) ---> high probability behaviour • High probability behaviour (at the time) the reinforcer

Question 40

What is the Response Deprivation Hypothesis?

Answer 40

If we don’t know both the probabilities … Behaviour can serve as a reinforcer when: 1. Access to the reinforcing behaviour is restricted 2. Frequency of the reinforcing behaviour falls below the preferred level of occurrence

Question 41

Give an example of the RDH

Answer 41

A pigeon prefers 20 pellets per (freely available) day We give him 5 1. The pigeon’s reinforcing behaviour (eating 20 pellets) is restricted 2. Frequency of the reinforcing behaviour has fallen below the preferred level (of 20 pellets) 3. This makes it willing to work due to a state of deprivation to get closer to their preferred level

Question 42

What is the Behavioural Bliss Point Approach?

Answer 42

• An organism that has free access to alternative activities will organise its behaviour to maximise its overall (optimal) reinforcement • Within constraints of our life, we distribute our time so as to optimise reinforcement

Question 43

What are the two theories of avoidance?

Answer 43

Escape behaviour: performing a behaviour stops an aversive stimulus, and as such strengthens that behaviour • Avoidance behaviour: performing a behaviour prevents an aversive stimulus from happening, and as such strengthens that behaviour

Question 44

What is the Shuttle Avoidance Procedure?

Answer 44

an animal has to shuttle back and forth in a box to avoid an aversive stimulus. This demonstrates that we first learn escape from an aversive stimulus and then to avoid it

Question 45

What is the Two Process Theory of Avoidance?

Answer 45

1. Classical conditioning of Fear Response | 2. Operant procedure of negative reinforcement

Question 46

Draw out the Two Process Theory of Avoidance on paper if you were scared of driving because of a crash?

Answer 46

1. CC | 2. OC

Question 47

What is a problem with the TPTOA?

Answer 47

* Problem: avoidance responses can be extremely persistent * Possible explanation: anxiety conservation hypothesis: avoidance behaviours occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for extinction to take place

Question 48

Give an example of the TPTOA & Anxiety Conservation Hypothesis

Answer 48

A dog doesn't wait to see that a light means he will get shocked because he will just run away to avoid it, therefore no extinction of the fear of lights.

Question 49

What does the One Process Theory of Avoidance state?

Answer 49

Escape and avoidance behaviours are reinforced by | the reduction of the aversive stimulus

Question 50

Name the three stages of the OC process

Answer 50

1. Acquisition 2. Shaping 3. Exinction

Question 51

What is acquisition?

Answer 51

The initial stage of learning - learning a pattern of responding or the association between behaviour and reinforcer. • A gradual process that requires shaping

Question 52

What is shaping?

Answer 52

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour • Important when subject does not on its own perform the desired response

Question 53

What is Extinction?

Answer 53

The gradual weakening and elimination of the response tendency. • Achieved through halting the reinforcement. The time this takes depends on how resistant the subject is to extinction.

Question 54

Give an example of shaping.

Answer 54

We may reinforce a rat when it approaches the lever, when it gets closer to the leaver, etc. Rats don't usually press levers so reinforcing the steps via shaping will help the rat do what we want\

Question 55

What is chaining?

Answer 55

Training a person or animal to perform a sequence of behaviours. • Involves breaking down a behaviour or sequence into its components using task analysis. Then reinforcing the performance of each component.

Question 56

Think about our rat who was undergoing shaping before- create a behaviour chain for him.

Answer 56

1. rat moves to lever- reinforice 2. Rat gets up on hind legs near the lever- reinforce 3. Rat touches lever- reinforce 4. rat presses lever- reinforce

Question 57

What are the two types of chaining?

Answer 57

Forward chaining: reinforce the first component, then when this is performed we add the second component reinforcing performance of the two together until this is completed without hesitation, then add the third and so on. • Backward chaining: Starting with the last link in the chain and building towards the first component. • This is often the more efficient and easier approach.