Opposition progression from the 60s

Question 1

Opposition stance in the 60s

Answer 1

The 1960’s were damaging for black opposition groups, ANC & PAC were banned. The state was growing in confidence economically & although Verwoerd was assassinated, the foundations for furthering apartheid were laid.
The possibilities for black resistance to apartheid seemed limited in 1968.

Question 2

Result of limited resistance

Answer 2

So, the student movement took on the role of struggle & led by Steve Biko they began to force a new black identity.
- They began to force a new black identity & this new consciousness lead to explosive responses from students in the 1970’s.
- Several establishing developments, nationally and internationally, severely hampered NP attempts to have a complete apartheid state (this continues and led to more whites doubting apartheid).

Question 3

Higher Education in the ‘60s

Answer 3

• New momentum rooted first in the universities where apartheid had been applied following the Extension of University Act 1959.
• NP wanted to segregate higher education completely, but knew they needed more than whites for the economic development of SA & homelands. (‘Bantu Education’ evaluated U.B Tabata’s Education for barbarism).
• So, the NP wanted to create ethnically specific universities that encouraged tribal languages.
• After ’59 Act, Africans seeking higher education were directed to the university of the North (Turfloop).

Question 4

Who was Steve Biko?

Answer 4

– medical student at the University of Natal.
- He led the black delegation during the 1967 NUSAS Congress at Rhodes University: the university refused to allow black students to stay in residences on campus or use other facilities equally during the conference.
- The mistreatment helped to trigger the formation of a separate black student movement during 68/69 – founded South African’s Student Organization (SASO) in July 1969 at Turfloop (Biko as president).
- New phase of resistance born, took upon ANC youth league and PAC with added black & liberation theology.
- The movement was called ‘Black Consciousness’ (needed to rethink their position in society and liberate their minds first.

Question 5

How was BC less of an organised movement and more of an intellectual orientation?

Answer 5

• An attitude of mind, aimed to ensure that black people were ‘self-defined’, using ‘black’ challenged the other derogatory terms.
• Universities (Turfloop/ Fort Hare) produced activists central in SA protest politics (apartheid gave them this ironically).
• SASO was able to maintain a strong presence on black campuses (used end of Portuguese rule in Mozambique in ’74 for mass protests) – A rally at Turfloop attended by 1,200/ Durban rally at a stadium despite government ban.
• 1972, Black consciousness & black peoples convention were launched (different to PAC as they were not largely migrant workers but students & youth).
• 1972 – Student president Abraham Tire spoke at Turfloop graduation – he made a sting attack at the school.
• North American civil rights success drifted back to students (newspapers) & Kennedy’s speech advocating equality.
• International influences: USA protests against Vietnam War (liberation ideas/counter culture).
• Focused on education institutions but also community organizations & self-help groups, (The World in Soweto) newspaper didn’t directly promote black consciousness but increased their coverage (growing black literacy was a vehicle to success

Question 6

March 1973 – Government decided SASO was too dangerous.

Answer 6

• Banning orders issued against prominent leaders Biko.
• Trial in 1975m on charges under the terrorism act, they secured a high profile for their ideas (they sang freedom songs & raised clenched fists).