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BIology > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

1
Q

How are muscle cells specialised x 2

A

they can contract and contain special protien fibres which change their length
full of mitochondria which provide energy for contraction

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2
Q

what are cells

A

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms.

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3
Q

what are tissues

A

A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function

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4
Q

what are organs

A

Organs are aggregations (groups) of tissues that work together performing specific functions

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5
Q

what are organs

A

Organs are aggregations (groups) of tissues that work together performing specific functions

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6
Q

example of an organ

A

stomach, contains muscle tissue and glandular tissue which release enzymes

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7
Q

what does the stomach have that helps it carry out its function

A

contains muscle tissue and glandular tissue which release enzymes

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8
Q

what is an organ system

A

Organs are organised into organ systems, which work together to form organisms.

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9
Q

what three main nutrients do food contain

A

carbohydrates eg starch
protiens
lipids eg fat

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10
Q

why do the three main nutrients in food have to be digested

A

they are large molecules, too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream

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11
Q

what happens during digestion

A

large food molecules are broken down into small molecules by enzymes. Small molecules absorbed into bloodstream.

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12
Q

what happens in the mouth during digestion

A

food is chewed. enzymes in the saliva begin to digest the starch into smaller sugar molecules.

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13
Q

where does food travel to from the mouth

A

oesophagous

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14
Q

food travels from the oesophagous to the stomach. what happens in the stomach

A

in the stomach, enzymes begin the digestion of protiens

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15
Q

what does the stomach contain that helps digestion and how

A

hydrochloric acid which helps the enzymes digest protiens

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16
Q

how is the food turned into a fluid. Why is this beneficial

A

the churning action of stomach muscles turns food into fluid
increases s.a for enzymes to digest

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17
Q

where does the fluid go from the stomach

A

stomach to small intestine

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18
Q

chemicals are released into the small intestine from……

A

liver and pancreas

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19
Q

what does the pancreas release

A

pancreas releases enzymes which continue digestion of starch and protiens
and start digestion of lipids

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20
Q

Bile is made in the …… and stored in the ……..

A

Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.

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21
Q

what does bile do

A

bile neutralises hydrochloric acid from the stomach

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22
Q

what does bile do to fat

A

bile emulsifies fat
to form small droplets which increases the surface area.

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23
Q

how does the bile increase fat breakdown

A

The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat (lipid) breakdown by lipase

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24
Q

what do the walls of the small intestines release

A

walls of small intestine release enzymes to continue breakdown of protien and lipids

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25
Q

what happens in the small intestines

A

in small intestine, small food molecules produced by digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream
by diffusion or active transport

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26
Q

where does food go from small intestine

A

large intestine

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27
Q

what happens in large intestine

A

in large intestine, water is absorbed into the bloodstream

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28
Q

what happens after the large intestine

A

faeces released rom body

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29
Q

what happens in the digestive system

A

large food molecules are digested into smaller molecules and then the products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream

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30
Q

how are the products of digestion used

A

used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and protiens.

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31
Q

state the role of enzymes

A

Catalyse chemical reactions

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32
Q

what are enzymes and what do they have on their surface

A

large protien molecules. have a groove on the surface called an active site

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33
Q

what happens at the active site

A

substrate attaches at active site and is broken down into products

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34
Q

enzymes are …… , the subtrate must fit …….. into the active site, This is called the …. and……. theory

A

enzymes are specific, the subtrate must fit perfectly into the active site, This is called the LOCK and KEY theory

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35
Q

what enzyme breaks down protiens

A

proteases

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36
Q

what enzyme breaks down lipids

A

lipases

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37
Q

what enzyme breaks down starch

A

amalyse

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38
Q

amalyse breaks down …… into…..

A

amalyse breaks down starch into glucose

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39
Q

proteas breaks down ……. into……

A

proteas breaks down protiens into amino acids

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40
Q

lipase breaks down …… into …… & …….

A

lipase breaks down lipids into fatty acid and glycerol

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41
Q

3 places amalyse is found

A

salivary glands
pancreas
sm. intestine

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42
Q

3 places proteas is found

A

stomach
pancreas
sm.intestine

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43
Q

what enzyme is found in only two places, and where

A

lipase is found in:
pancreas
sm.intestine

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44
Q

what enzymes are found in the pancreas and sm. intestine

A

lipase
proteas
amalyse

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45
Q

protiens are long chains of……. called ……. ….

A

protiens are long chains of chemicals called amino acids

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46
Q

what does proteas do to protien

A

proteas convert the protien back into amino acids which are absorbed into bloodstream

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47
Q

how are human protiens made

A

amino acids are absorbed by body cells and joined togethe rin a different order

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48
Q

what is starch and what does it consist of

A

starch is a carbohydrate
consists of a chain of glucose molecules

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49
Q

what are carbohydrates broken down by

A

carbohydrases

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50
Q

Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates to ……

A

simple sugars

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51
Q

Amylase is a ………which breaks down starch

A

carbohydrase ( an enyme)

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52
Q

lipid molecule consists of
a ……. molecule attached to ….. molecules of …. …..

A

lipid molecule consists of
a glycerol molecule attached to three molecules of fatty acids

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53
Q

what does lipase do..

A

it splits apart the glycerol molecule and three molecules of fatty acids

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54
Q

what happens to enzymes as we increase the temperature

A

as temp increases, the activity of the enzyme increases (reaction gets faster)

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55
Q

why does an increase in temp cause a faster reaction

A

the enzyme and substrate move faster so there are MORE COLLISIONS per second btwn them

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56
Q

explain the optimum temp for an enzyme

A

when the enzyme is working at the fastest possible rate
maximum frequency of successful collisions between substrate and active site

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57
Q

what is optimum temp for most enzymes

A

37 degrees ( human body temp)

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58
Q

what will we see on a graph when temperature is increase past the optimum

A

the enzyme activity rapidly decreases to 0

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59
Q

why does an enzyme (active site) denature from too high temps. (3 points)

A

the enzyme molecule vibrates
the shape of the active site changes
substrate no longer fits into active site

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60
Q

what cant happen when enzyme denatures

A

enzyme can no longer catalyse the reaction

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61
Q

describe the graph for:
effect of temp on activity of enzymes

A

rises diagonally to a point, then curves and decreases rapidly to 0
a .
c . .
t . .
i . .
v . .
i . .
t . .
y . .
temperature

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62
Q

what happens to the enzyme activity when the ph is more acidic or alkaline then the optimum

A

enzyme activity drops to 0 when ph is more acidic or alkaline

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63
Q

the active site…….. if the conditions are too ….. or too …….

A

active site denatures if conditions are too acidic or too alkaline.

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64
Q

fill in the gaps

Each …… has a …….. optimum ..

A

each enzyme has a specific optimum ph

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65
Q

what PH does a protease enzyme work best at.

A

acidic ph

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66
Q

where are protease enzymes found

A

in the stomach

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67
Q

what ph does lipase work best at

A

alkaline ph

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68
Q

lipase is released from the ……….. into the …… …….

A

lipase is released from the pancreas into the small intestine

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69
Q

describe a graph for:
effect of ph on enzymes activity

A

a .
c . .
t . .
i . .
v . .
i . .
t . .
y . .
PH

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70
Q

what solution do you use to test for starch
and what colour does a positive test turn

A

Starchy Dina
bluey black

use iodine to test for starch
turns bluey black

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71
Q

what solution do you use to test for a reducing sugar, ( glucose )
and what colour does a positive test turn

A

Sweet Benedict
brick red -only reducing sugars

use Benedict’s solution to test for glucose

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72
Q

when testing for reducing sugars, what colour will a high/ low amount turn

A

green/yellow if the amount is low
red if it is high.

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73
Q

what solution do you use to test for protein
what colour does a positive test turn

A

Protien Biuret
purple

add protien solution to test for protien
turn purple/lilac if protien is present

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74
Q

what are the first 5 steps for food tests

A

1.grind food sample with distilled water
2.use mortar and pestle to make a paste
3.put paste in Beaker add more distilled
4.stir so chemicals in food dissolve
5.filter solution

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75
Q

Rhyme to remember first 5 steps of food tests

A

Water
mortar
paste in beaker
stir
filter

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76
Q

describe test for starch

A

add 2cm cubed of food solution into test tube
and orange iodine solution
turns blue-black starch present
stays orange starch not present

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77
Q

describe the test for sugars

A

add 2cm cubed of food solution into test tube
add benedict solution - blue (10 drops)
Heat for 2 mins in water bath
@boiling point
colour change if sugars are present

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78
Q

what do different colours tell us in the test for sugar

A

Green- small amount of sugar
Yellow- more sugar present
Brick red- alot of sugar present

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79
Q

benedict test only works for …….. sugars. it will not work for ….. ……. sugars eg ……

A

benedict test only works for reducing sugars
it will not work for non reducing sugars eg sucrose

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80
Q

describe test for protien

A

add 2 cm cubed of food solution
then add 2 cm cubed of biuret solution (blue)
protien present:
colour change from blue to purple/ lilac

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81
Q

describe the test for lipids fats

A

add 2 cm cubed of food solution (unfiltered) to test tube
add few drops of d.water and ethanol
shake shake shake (gently;)
turns cloudy milky if lipids are present

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82
Q

what is the emulsion test

A

the test for lipids

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83
Q

TRUE / FALSE
we filter the solution when testing for lipids.
why/why not

A

FALSE
we don’t filter the solution when testing for lipids
as lipid molecules can stick to filter paper

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84
Q

what do you use to test for lipids
what colour does a positive test turn

A

Fatty Ethanol
cloudy, milky
add ethanol ( and water )
cloudy milky emulsion formed if lipid present

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85
Q

why do you need to take caution with ethanol

A

Ethanol is highly flammable
Make sure no naked flames are present

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86
Q

describe RP effect of ph on enzymes

A

Step 1
Place one drop of iodine solution into each well of a spotting tile

Step 2
Take 3 test tubes - label each one

Step 3
1st test tube = add 2cm cubed of starch solution
2nd test tube = add 2cm cubed of amylase solution
3rd test tube = add 2cm cubed of PH5 buffer solution

Buffer solution - used to control PH

Step 4
Place all 3 test tubes in water bath at 30 degrees

Step 5
Leave them for 10 minutes - to allow solutions to reach right temperature

Step 6
Combine 3 solutions into one test tube

Mix with a stirring rod

Step 7
Return test tubes to water bath and start stop watch

Step 8
After 30 seconds use the stirring rod to transfer one drop of solution to a well in the spotting tile that contains iodine

Results
The iodine should turn blue - black if starch is present

Until result
Take a sample every 30 seconds and continue until iodine remains orange

What does it mean when iodine remains orange?
When iodine remains orange - tells us that starch is no longer present and the reaction has been completed

time taken
We record the time for this in our results

Repeat
Repeat the whole experiment several times using different PH Buffers

PH 6, PH 7, PH 8

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87
Q

how is sm. intestine adapted (length)

A

length of 5 m
large s.a for absorbtion of products of digestion

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88
Q

how is the interior of small intestine adapted

A

sm. intestine interior has millions of villi
increase s.a for absorbtion of molecules

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89
Q

where are microvilli found and what do they do

A

microvilli are found on the surface of villi
increase s.a even further

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90
Q

describe another way villi are adapted (blood)

A

very good blood supply.
blood stream removes products of digestion rapidly
increases concentration gradient

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91
Q

how do villi increase the concentration gradient

A

they have god blood supply which quickly removes the products of digestion

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92
Q

how are villi adapted ( membrane )

A

thin membrane,
short diffusion pathway

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93
Q

list all the adaptations of sm.intestine inc villi (5 points)

A

very long- large s.a for absorbtion
have villi- increase s.a
villi have microvilli
villi have good blood supply
villi have thin membrane

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94
Q

fish have a single circulatory system. describe this

A

blood pumped from heart to gills
collects o2 in gills(oxygenated)
blood passes straight to organs
oxygen diffuses OUT of blood into body CELLS
blood returns to heart

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95
Q

what is a problem with single circulatory system

A

blood loses pressure as it passes to gills before organs
blood travels to organs slowly, cant deliver alot of o2

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96
Q

double cirulatory system

A

heart to lungs
collects o2
o2 blood back to heart
o2 blood pumped to organs
o2 transferred to body cells
deoxygenated blood back to heart

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97
Q

benefit of double circulatory system

A

blood passes to heart twice,
travels rapidly to body cells
delivers o2 cells need

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98
Q

the heart is an ………. consisting mainly of …….. tissue

A

the heart is an organ consisting mainly of muscle tissue

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99
Q

name the 4 chambers of the heart

A

right atrium left atrium
right ventricle left ventricle

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100
Q

the heart and circulatory system

……. are separated from ….. by valves

A

atria separated from ventricle by valves

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101
Q

what does vena cava do

A

brings X O2 blood to heart

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102
Q

what does pulmonary artery do

A

PA takes X O2 blood to lunfs

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103
Q

what does Pulmonary Vein do

A

brings O2 blood from lungs to heart

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104
Q

what does aorta do

A

takes O2 blood from heart to body

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105
Q

describe pattern of blood flow through heart

A

blood enters right and left atrium
atria contract-
blood forced to ventricles
ventricles contract-
blood forced out of heart

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106
Q

what do valves do

A

valves stop back flow of blood
(in atria when ventricles contract)

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107
Q

The …… ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where
….. …. takes place

A

The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where
gas exchange takes place

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108
Q

The ….. ventricle pumps blood ………

A

The left ventricle pumps blood around the
rest of the body.

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109
Q

what does the left ventricle do

A

The left ventricle pumps blood around the
rest of the body.

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110
Q

what does the right ventricle do

A

The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where
gas exchange takes place.

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111
Q

the … side of the heart has a thicker…… …. than the … side

A

the left side of the heart has a thicker musculer wall then the right side

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112
Q

why does the left side of the heart have a thicker muscular wall then the right side

A

the left ventricle pumple blood around ENTIRE body.
needs to provide a GREATER force

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113
Q

where do coronary arteries branch out from

A

coronary arteries branch out from aorta

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114
Q

coronary arteries …… out of ….. and spread out into ….. ……

A

coronary arteries branch out of aorta and spread out into heart muscle

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115
Q

what is the purpose of the coronary arteries

A

purpose of coronary arteries is to provide oxygen to muscle cells of heart

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116
Q

coronary arteries provide oxygen to muscle cells of heart. how is the O2 used

A

used in respiration to provide energy for contraction

117
Q

The ……. …… heart rate is controlled by a ….. … ….. located in the ….. …… that act as a pacemaker

A

The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located
in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker

118
Q

what is the natural resting heart rate controlled by

A

natural resting heart rate controlled by a group of cell called pacemaker

119
Q

the group of cell that act as a pace maker are found in …..

A

the right atrium

120
Q

what is an artificial pace maker

A

a small electric device that corrects irregularities in the heart rate

121
Q

what do arteries do

A

carry high pressure blood from heart to organs

122
Q

adaptation of arteries ( walls)

A

thick muscular walls,
withstand high pressure of blood

123
Q

blood travel through the arteries in …… every time the heart …..

A

blood travels through the arteries in surges every time the heart beats

124
Q

how do elastic fibres in arteries keep blood moving

A

the elastic fibres stretch when the surge of blood passes
they recoil in between surges
keeps blood moving

125
Q

three adaptations of arteries

A

thick muscular elastic walls
walls stretch to withstand pressure
small lumen

126
Q

what happens when blood passes through capillaries. 2 points

A

substances eg glucose and oxygen diffuse from blood into cells
co2 diffuses from cells into blood

127
Q

adaptations of capillaries

A

once cell thick- short diffusion pathway
small lumen

128
Q

what does the short diffusion pathway in capillaries allow

A

allows substances to diffuse rapidly between blood and cells

129
Q

what do capillaries do

A

pumps blood to tissue/cells
connects arteries and veins

130
Q

what do veins do

A

take deoxygenated blood from organs to heart (low pressure)

131
Q

veins have a ….. wall as the blood is … pressure

A

veins have a thin wall as the blood is low pressure

132
Q

what do veins contain and what do these do

A

valves in veins stop backflow of blood

133
Q

three adaptations of veins

A

valves
thin wals
large lumen

134
Q

blood has 4 important part which are …..

A

plasma the liquid part of the blood
white blood cells
red blood cells
platelets

135
Q

Blood is a ……… consisting of …….., in which the ….. blood cells, …… blood cells and ……… are ……..

A

Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended.

136
Q

what are platelets

A

tiny fragments of cells

137
Q

three substances blood plasma transports

A

urea
carbon dioxide
soluble digestion products (eg glucos)

138
Q

where does plasma transport soluble digestion products to

A

plasma transports soluble digestion products from sm.intestine to other organs

139
Q

where does plasma transport co2 to

A

from organs to lungs to be breathed out

140
Q

where does plasma transport urea to

A

from liver to kidneys to be excreted in urine

141
Q

what do red blood cells do

A

transport o2 from lungs to body cells

142
Q

red blood cells contain the o2 carrying molecule called……

A

haemaglobin

143
Q

what does haemaglobin do

A

heamaglobin combines with O2 in the lungs, forming oxyhaemoglobin

144
Q

haemglobin + ………….. = oxyhaemaglobin

A

haemglobin + oxygen = oxyhaemaglobin

combines with O2 in the lungs

145
Q

red blood cells (containing the oxyheamoglobin) travel to the organs. what happens next

A

once red blood cells (containing the oxyheamoglobin) travel to the organs
the oxyheameglobin releases the oxygeon

146
Q

equation for oxyheamaglobin releaseing o2

A

oxyhaemaglobin to organs = heamaglobin + oxygen

147
Q

red blood cell adaptations x3

A

no nucleus (space for haemaglobin)
has red pigment, haemaglobin
bi-concave disc shape

148
Q

what does biconcave disc shape do

A

give greater s.a so O2 diffuses in and out rapidly

149
Q

white blood cells form part of the …… …… for example making ……..

A

white blood cells form part of the immune system for example making antibodies

150
Q

white blood cells contain a nucleus. how is this helpful

A

nucleus contains DNA, which encodes the instructions that the wbc need to do their job

151
Q

what is the job of platelets

A

platelets help blood to clot

152
Q

3 uses of donated blood in medicine

A

replace blood loss due to injury
people given platelets extracted from blood to help clotting
proteins extracted from blood can be useful eg antibodies

153
Q

what do you need to make sure of in a blood transfusion, why

A

make sure the donated blood is the same blood type as the patients
immune system could reject blood. patient could die

154
Q

two problems with dontated blood

A

body could reject blood
diseases transmitted in blood

155
Q

why is blood screened in the uk

A

blood screened for infections as lots of diseases can be transmitted via blood

156
Q

what are cardiovascular diseases

A

disease of the heart and blood vessels, non communicable.

157
Q

example of a cardiovascular disease

A

coronary heart disease

158
Q

what happens in coronary heart disease . what does this cause

A

layers of fatty material build up in coronary arteries, causing coronary arteries to NARROW

159
Q

what happens when coronary arteries are narrowed and how does this affect the heart

A

blood flow through the coronary arteries is reduced so there is a lack of O2 for the heart muscle

160
Q

what happens in extreme cases of coronary heart disease

A

a heart attack as heart is starved of oxygen

161
Q

2 common treatments for coronary heart disease

A

statins
stents

162
Q

what are statins

A

drugs that lower cholestrol in blood

163
Q

how do statins help coronary heart disease

A

statins slow down rate of fatty build up in arteries

164
Q

advantage and disadvantage of statins

A

statins are effective
(they lower cholestrol + reduce fat build up)
unwanted side effects
(liver problems)

165
Q

why are some people with chd treated using stent

A

as chd caused almost a total blockage of an artery

166
Q

what is a stent

A

a tube inserted into coronary artery to keep it open

167
Q

advantage and disadvantage of a stent

A

the blood can flow normally through artery

does not treat cause of disease/ wont stop other parts of coronary artery from narrowing

168
Q

coronary heart disease to do with valves opening and what it causes

A

heart valves X fully open. heart pumps xtra hard to get blood through. causes heart to enlarge

169
Q

leaky valve causes

A

patient to feel weak and tired

170
Q

In coronary heart disease layers of ………….. ……. build up inside the
…………… ……….. narrowing them. This reduces the flow of blood
through the coronary arteries, resulting in a …. …. …… for the heart muscle. ………. are used to keep the coronary arteries open. ……….. are
widely used to reduce blood ………. levels which slows down the rate of ….. …….. deposit.

A

In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the
coronary arteries, narrowing them. This reduces the flow of blood
through the coronary arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart
muscle. Stents are used to keep the coronary arteries open. Statins are
widely used to reduce blood cholesterol levels which slows down the
rate of fatty material deposit.

171
Q

In some people heart valves may become…….., preventing the valve
from …. ……, or the heart valve might develop a ……

A

In some people heart valves may become faulty, preventing the valve
from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak

172
Q

Faulty heart
valves can be replaced using …… ……. from a pig or …….. valves made of metal

A

Faulty heart
valves can be replaced using biological valves from a pig or mechanical valves made of metal

173
Q

advantage and disadvantage of mechanical valves

A

mechanical valve last a lifetime
increase risk of bloodclot

174
Q

solution for mechanical valve problem

A

anticlotting drugs

175
Q

advantage and disadvantages of biological valves

A

need to be replaced
patient doesnt need to take any drugs

176
Q

what is heart failure

A

the heart cannot pump enough blood around the body

177
Q

what are patients with heart failure given

A

donated heart or donated heart and lungs

178
Q

In the case of …. …. a donor heart, or
……….. and ……… can be
transplanted. ………….. hearts are occasionally used to keep patients alive
whilst waiting for a heart
……….., or to allow the heart to …….. as an
aid to ……………

A

In the case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be
transplanted. Artificial hearts are occasionally used to keep patients alive
whilst waiting for a heart transplant, or to allow the heart to rest as an
aid to recovery.

179
Q

problems with donating hearts x2

A

not enough donated hearts
patient must take drugs to stop heart being rejected by immune system

180
Q

why are artificial hearts not long term solutions to heart failure

A

artificial hearts increase the risk of blood clotting

181
Q

how does air pass into the lungs

A

air passes to lungs through the trachea

182
Q

one key feature of trachea

A

trachea contains rings of cartilage

183
Q

what do the rings of cartilage in trachea do

A

prevent trachea collapsing during inhalation

184
Q

trachea splits into two …….. tubes called …….. , with one passing to each …….

A

trachea splits into two smaller tubes called bronchi with one passing to each lung

185
Q

what happens to the bronchi further into the lung

A

further into the lung the bronchi subdivides into many smaller tubes called bronchioles

186
Q

what do bronchioles end in

A

bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli

187
Q

what happens at alveoli

A

sites of gas exchange
oxygen diffuses out of air into blood
co2 diffuses out of bloodstream into air

188
Q

how are alveoli adapted for efficient gas exchange

A

millions of alveoli mean lungs have large s.a
alveoli have thin walls, short diffusion pathway
alveoli have very good blood supply

189
Q

how does alveoli blood supply affect concentration gradient

A

once o2 diffuses into blood, its rapidly removed
this ensures a steep concentration gradient

190
Q

how does breathing increase rate of diffusion ( 3 points)

A

breathing brings fresh o2 into alveoli
takes away co2
makes concentration gradients high for these gases
increasing rate of diffusion

191
Q

what is a benign tumour

A

growths of abnormal cells which are contained in
one area

192
Q

what is a malignant tumour

A

cancerous tumours that invade neighbouring tissue and move into the bloodstream

193
Q

what happens in mitosis

A

one cell is copied into two cells

194
Q

when does cell division by mitosis usually happen

A

during growth and repair

195
Q

mitosis is extremely tightly controlled. what does this mean

A

genes in the nucleus tell the cell when and when to stop dividing

196
Q

how does uncontrolled growth and mitosis occur

A

when the genes
(which tell cells when to stop dividing )
are changed

197
Q

when the genes
(which tell cells when to stop dividing )
are changed, what is produced

A

a tumour (growth)

198
Q

where are benign tumours usually contained

A

within a membrane

199
Q

do benign tumours invade other parts of the body

A

no, stay in one place

200
Q

what do malignant tumour cells do

A

they invade neighbouring tissue
spread to different parts of the body
through the blood
and form secondary tumours

201
Q

at are malignant tumour cells classed as

A

classed as a cancer

202
Q

what are the two risk factors for cancer

A

lifetyle factors
genetic factors

203
Q

what are three cancers linked to lifestyle

A

smoking - lung cancer
ultraviolet light- skin cancer
alcohol- mouth and throat cancer

204
Q

what is a gas in the environment that increases chance of lung cancer

A

radon gas (radioactive)

205
Q

what does radon gas do

A

releases ionising radiation
which damages dna in our cells

206
Q

what do cells damaged by radon radiation end up doing

A

dividing uncontrollably, leading to cancer

207
Q

what are non communicable diseases caused by

A

risk factors

208
Q

what is epedimiology

A

studying the patterns of disease to determine the risk factors

209
Q

what do scientists used to identify a correlations between potential risk factors and the disease

A

a scatter graph

210
Q

what must you remember about scattergraphs being used in terms of risk factors

A

a correlation does not prove cause
just suggests that disease and the action may be linlked

211
Q

what two graphs did scientists use for smoking and lung cancer

A

number of cigarettes daily
and
risk of developing lung cancer

number of years smoking
and
risk of lung cancer

the action and the risk

the time of doing the action and the risk

212
Q

what two areas of risk factors are there

A
  • aspects of a person’s lifestyle
  • substances in the person’s body or environment.
213
Q

what is a causal mechanism

A

a scientific explanation of how the supposed risk factor can cause the disease

214
Q

why is smoking a risk factor for lung cancer

A

cigarrette smoke contains chemicals which damage dna and increase risk of cancer

215
Q

what are carcinegens

A

chemicals which damage dna and increase risk of cancer

216
Q

when can we accept that a factor is actually a true risk factor for a disease?

A

strong correlation between the factor and the disease

a causal mechanism

217
Q

epedimiology is studying the pattern of disease to determine risk factors. What is an issue with this

A

to study the pattern of disease, a sample is needed.
ideally you’d study every person in a population, but that’s not possible.
so scientists study a group of people and draw conclusions about the whole population
however, the sample could be biased ( all people from one town may under exercise )
so that sample doesn’t represent the countries population.
we cant use those results to draw conclusions about the whole country.

218
Q

how to tackle bias in a sample

A

large, random sample

219
Q

what are risk factors for cardiovascular diseases

A

diet
smoking
exercise

220
Q

how does diet increase risk of cardiovascular disease

A

high fat, low veg
increases cholestrol
increases rate of fatty material build up in arteries

high salt increases blood pressure

221
Q

how does smoking increase risk of cardiovascular diseases

A

chemicals in cigarette cause blood to clot
nicotene increases heart rate, straining the heart

222
Q

how does smoking cause lung cancer

A

chemicals in cigarrette trigger cancer (carcinagens)

223
Q

smoking is a risk factor for…

A

cardiovascular disease
lung disease
lung cancer
miscarriage / premature birth/ lowbody mass

224
Q

how does smoking affect an unborn child

A

miscarriage
premature birth
low body mass

225
Q

what can drinking when pregnant cause in a child

A

fetal alcohol syndrome
learning difficulties
mental / physical problems

226
Q

what diseases/ problems can excessive drinking cause
(not including pregnant women)

A

liver diseases (cirrhosis and cancer)
addiction
memory loss

227
Q

what is obesity a risk factor for

A

type 2 diabetes

228
Q

what happens with type 2 diabetes

A

struggle to control blood glucose levels

229
Q

give an example of how risk factors can interact

A

alcohol increases risk of obesity
obesity increases risk of type 2 diabetes

230
Q

what gas is a risk factor of cancer

A

radon gas

231
Q

what does smoking increase the risk of

A

cardiovascular diseases
lung cancer
lung disease eg emphysema

232
Q

what are leaves

A

a plant organ

233
Q

what tissues are found in a leaf, in order of there placement, top to bottom

A

(waxy cuticle)
1.upper epidermis
xylem and phloem + palisade mesophyll
3. spongy mesophyll
lower epidermis + stomata + guard cells

234
Q

name all the structures and tissues in a plant leaf
U
XP’d the
PM
So Much
So Guards
Marched To
London

A

upper epidermis
xylem and phloem
palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll
stomata and guard cells
meristem tissue
lower epidermis

235
Q

what does the epidermis do

A

protects the surface of the leaf

236
Q

adaptation of upper epidermis

A

transparent

237
Q

why is the upper epidermis transparent

A

to allow light to pass through to the photosynthetic cells below

238
Q

what is the upper epidermis covered by

A

the waxy cuticle- thin layer of oily material

239
Q

what does the waxy cuticle do and why

A

reduces water evaporation from leaf surface
this prevents leaf from drying out

240
Q

what are the u/L
upperdermis made of

A

very thin epidermal cells

241
Q

what does the lower epidermis have

A

stomata and guard cells

242
Q

what is the role of stomata

A

allow CO2 to enter and O2 to leave

control water vapour passing out

243
Q

where is the palisade mesophyll found

A

top of leaf under epidermis

244
Q

what does the palisade mesophyll contain

A

palisade cells
which contain
chlorplasts
which contain
chlorophyll

245
Q

where are the chlorophyll found

A

in the palisade mesophyll

246
Q

hat do the chlorphyll do

A

absorb light energy for photosynthesis

247
Q

what is beneath the palisade mesophyll

A

spongy mesophyll

248
Q

key feature of spongy mesophyll

A

full of air spaces

249
Q

what do the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allow

A

allow CO2 to diffuse from stomata
through the spongy mesophyll
to the palisade cells

Allow O2 to diffuse from palisade cells through spongy mesophyll to stomata

250
Q

what do xylem cells form

A

long tubes

251
Q

what do the xylem tubes do

A

transport water + minerals from the roots of the plant to the leaves

252
Q

what do the xylem tubes do

A

transport water + minerals from the roots of the plant to the leaves

253
Q

one feature of xylem cells (walls)

A

very thick walls containing lignin

254
Q

xylem cells have very thick walls containing lignin- how does this help the plant

A

provides support to the plant

255
Q

xylem cell walls are sealed with lignin, what does this cause

A

causes the xylem cells to die

256
Q

another feature of xylem cells
(end walls)

A

the end wall between cells is completely broken down.

257
Q

in xylem cells, the end walls btwn cells have completely broken down. What does this mean for the plant

A

the cells form a long tube,
water and dissolved minerals flow easily

258
Q

2 adaptations of xylem cells that makes the flow of water / minerals easier

A

no internal structures
+
end walls broken down

259
Q

what do phloem tubes do

A

carry dissolved sugars up and down the plant

260
Q

phloem consists of two different types of cells. what are they

A

phloem vessel cells
companion cell

261
Q

describe the internal structures of a phloem vessel cells

A

no nucleus
limited cytoplasm

262
Q

what do the end walls of phloem vessel cells have

A

pores called sieve plates

263
Q

what two features of a phloem vessel cell allow easy travel of sugars

A

pores called sieve plates
very few internal structures

264
Q

why does a phloem vessel cell have a companion cell

A

phloem vessel cell doesn’t have many mitrochondria
companion cell does

265
Q

how are the phloem vessel cell and companion cell connected

A

by pores

266
Q

what is the role of a companion cell in the phloem

A

companion cell provides energy for phloem vessel cell

267
Q

the xylem tissue transports water and minerals from roots to the stem and leaves. What is this water used for

A

some water used in photosynthesis

268
Q

what mineral ion travels up the xylem is used to makechlorophyll

A

magnesium

269
Q

what does the phloem tissue do

A

transports dissolved sugars
(from photosynthesis)
from leaves to rest of plant

270
Q

when can the dissolved sugar from the phloem be used

A

immediately- eg glucose in respiration
stored- as starch

271
Q

hat is translocation

A

movement of sugars and other molecules through the phloem tissue

272
Q

where is the meristem tissue found

A

at growing tips
eg shoots and tips

273
Q

what does meristem tissue contain

A

meristem tissue contains stem cells.
can differentiate into different types of plant tissue.water

274
Q

define transpiration

A

evaporation of water from the leaves

When the plant opens its stomata to let in carbon dioxide, water on the surface of the cells of the spongy mesophyll and palisade mesophyll evaporates and diffuses out of the leaf

275
Q

where does photosynthesis take place in a leaf

A

in the palisade mesophyll- (contains chlorophyll)

276
Q

describe process of transpiration stream
4 steps

A

. water from palisade mesophyll cells evaporates
. water vapour diffuses through air spaces in spongy mesophyll
. then out of the leaf through the stomata
. water passes from xylem into leaf to replace lost water
. water and mineral ions drawn into root hair cells and up xylem vessels into the leaf

277
Q

why is transpiration important
3 key points

A

brings water to the leaf
water is required for photosynthesis

transports dissolved mineral ions like magnesium which are important

evaporation of water cools leaf down

278
Q

how does temp affect rate of transpiration

A

rate of transpiration is higher at higher temp
(as evaporation is faster)

279
Q

how does humidity affect rate of transpiration

A

transpiration faster under dry conditions when its not humid-

evaporation takes place faster

280
Q

how does wind affect rate of transpirations

A

rate of transpiration increases under windy conditions

wind removes water vapour, allowing water to evaporate

281
Q

how does light intensity affect rate of transpiration

A

rate of transpiration increases as light intensity increases.

282
Q

why does rate of transpiration increases as light intensity increases.

A

high light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis
stomata open for CO2 to enter
so water can pass out of the leaf

283
Q

what are stomata surrounded by

A

guard cells

284
Q

what happens to guard cells when light intensity is high

A

guard cells swell
change their shape
causing stomata to open

285
Q

what happens when stomata open

A

CO2 diffuses in leaf
can be used in photosynthesis

286
Q

what happens to stomata in hot conditions
what is a negative of this

A

stomata close to reduce water loss by transpiration
plant cannot photosynthesise

287
Q

what is transpiration- 1 sentence

A

water constantly evaporating from surface of leaves

288
Q

what is a positive correlation in terms of a graph for smoking and lung cancer

A

when doing one thing also increases chance of another

BIology (11 decks)

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