Organisational Behaviour Thiccie

Question 1

Define OB.

Answer 1

The study of what people think, feel and do in and around organisations

Question 2

Define Work Design.

Answer 2

The content of tasks, activities and responsibility in a job and now those, tasks, activities and responsibilities are organised

Question 3

Define Specific Management.

Answer 3

A set of principles and practices stressing job simplification and specialization

Question 4

List the 4 Principles of Scientific Management.

Answer 4

1. Replace rule of thumb with the scientific method
2. Select, train, teach and develop your personnel
3. Strict division of labour: “managers plan the work workers work the plan”
4. Compensation is based on work output

Question 5

List the positives (4) and negatives (5) of the Scientific Method.

Answer 5

Positives:
•	Less time changing activities
•	Lower training costs
•	Job mastered quickly
•	Better person–job matching

Negatives:
•	Loss of control
•	Repetitive, boring tasks
•	Meaningless, monotonous work 
•	High job dissatisfaction
•	Little or no opportunity to develop and acquire new skills

Question 6

Explain the Job Characteristic Model (STTAT)

Answer 6

1. Skill variety - The opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents.
2. Task identity – The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end.
3. Task significance – The impact that a job has on other people.
4. Autonomy – The freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide work procedures.
5. Feedback – Information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance.

Question 7

Explain Work Re-Design (Job Rotation)

Answer 7

• Periodically moving workers from one specialised job to another
• Exposes employees to new knowledge, skills and perspectives
• Useful if high degree of physical demand or a high degree of repetitive tasks that can become extremely tedious.
• Increases organisational adaptivity and flexibility

Question 8

Explain Work Re-Design (Job Enlargement)

Answer 8

• Increasing the number of tasks performed by a worker to add greater variety to activities, thus reducing monotony
• Horizontal restructuring method (More tasks at the same responsibility)
• Increased work flexibility

Question 9

Explain Work Re-Design (Job Enrichment)

Answer 9

• Assigning additional responsibility and authority to an employee’s tasks
• Vertical restructuring method (Same task but more responsibility)
• Enrichment methods
o Granting additional authority to employees in their activities
o Giving a person a complete, natural unit of work
o Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled

Question 10

What are the three types of work re-design?

Answer 10

1. Job Rotation
2. Job Enrichment
3. Job Enlargement

Question 11

How do you make jobs more pro-socially motivating?

Answer 11

• Connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work
o Meet beneficiaries firsthand
• Allows employees to see that their actions affect a real, live person, and that their jobs have tangible consequences.
• Customers or clients more emotionally vivid  leads employees to consider the effects of their actions more.
• Allow employees to easily take the perspective of beneficiaries  higher commitment.
• Example
o Call centre, low morale, high turnover
o 5-minute conversation with university scholarship recipients
o Increased productivity and motivation

Question 12

What are the three categories for the consequences of distress?

Answer 12

1. Physiological
2. Psychological
3. Behavioural

Question 13

Define Stress

Answer 13

An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s wellbeing

Question 14

Explain the Job Demand-Control Model

Answer 14

• Best known model
• Emphasises two aspects:
o Level of strain (demands)
 Aspects of the job that require sustained physical and/or psychological effort
 time pressure, emotional labour, workload
o Decision latitude (control)
 The freedom an employee has to control and organise his own work.

Question 15

What are the three levels of OB?

Answer 15

1. Individual level
2. Group level
3. Organisational level

Question 16

Name three behavioural sciences studied in OB.

Answer 16

1. Psychology
2. Social Psychology
3. Sociology
4. Anthropology

Question 17

Give three dot points regarding Taylorism (1910s)

Answer 17

• Taylor believed that man’s worth depended on his level of productivity
• Obsessed about increasing the level of output
• People should specialise in jobs for maximum productivity
• The period didn’t last long

Question 18

List three subjective measures.

Answer 18

•	By researcher 
o	Over/Covert
•	By Other
o	Supervisor or co-workers report
•	By Participant
o	Self-report
o	May be favoured

Question 19

What was the Hawthorne Effect?

Answer 19

• Hawthorne Effect: When people know they are being watched they will naturally increase their productivity

Question 20

What is poly-motivation?

Answer 20

• Discovered poly-motivation
o Not just financially driven
o People are complex
o Social, emotional and other intangibles are important to individuals

Question 21

What is knowledge by intuition?

Answer 21

• Intuition is defined as the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
• Intuition is not always correct
• Subject to bias and errors
• Cannot solve complicated problems

Question 22

What is knowledge by experience?

Answer 22

• Intuition is defined as the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
• Intuition is not always correct
• Subject to bias and errors
• Cannot solve complicated problems

Question 23

What is knowledge by tradition?

Answer 23

•	Traditions…
o	Differ between cultures
o	Change over time
o	Can be manipulated
•	Tradition truisms (folk wisdom) can be contradictory
o	“Out of sight, out of mind” 
o	“Absence makes the heart grow fonder”

Question 24

What is knowledge by listening to authoritative sources?

Answer 24

• Authorities are not always well informed

* Which authority do you support?

Question 25

What is casual benchmarking?

Answer 25

• Doing what others seem to be doing • United Airlines mimicked Southwest Airlines approach o Not successful due to cultural differences • Instead conduct your own research and derive your own methods

Question 26

What is critical thinking?

Answer 26

* Ask questions * Examine available evidence (do your own research) * Avoid oversimplifying * Avoid emotional reasoning

Question 27

What is evidence based management?

Answer 27

* Using data changes the power dynamic * People often don’t want to hear the truth (don’t like their beliefs to be challenged) * People don’t believe the evidence

Question 28

What is empirical research?

Answer 28

Based on the careful study of data: • Learn the mechanisms of behaviour without relying on common sense/introspection • Cannot base OB on folk wisdom or personal beliefs • Must have testable hypotheses

Question 29

What is a theory?

Answer 29

• Set of propositions that describe inter-relationships among several concepts • Generic but needs to be testable • 2 types of possible relationships o Correlation o Causation • For example: Fatty, greasy foods are linked to obesity and poor health

Question 30

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 30

* A specific, testable statement explaining the condition under which something occurs. * Derived from a theory * For example: Eating McDonalds for a month will lead to weight gain and increased levels of cholesterol

Question 31

What is experimental design?

Answer 31

• The researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable. • Determining if X caused Y- Requirements o The variables are related o Temporal order, cause must precede effect (can’t measure at the same time) o Eliminate alternate explanations o Requires control groups (placebo) o Time consuming

Question 32

What is Quasi-Experimental design?

Answer 32

• Participants are not assigned randomly to conditions • Naturally occurring groups or pre-existing teams used • For example o Different leadership styles • More common but less concrete

Question 33

What are cross-sectional designs?

Answer 33

* All data collected at once * Most common in OB * Often done with surveys * Cannot determine causality- no temporal separation * Cheap and efficient * Alternative explanations (variables) are not eliminated

Question 34

What is Agreeableness?

Answer 34

• A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative

Question 35

Explain Correlation Coefficients

Answer 35

``` • Sign (+/-) indicates the direction of the relationship o Positive (+)  ‘A’ increases, ‘B’ increases  ‘A’ decreases, ‘B’ decreases o Negative (-)  ‘A’ increases, ‘B’ decreases  ‘A’ decreases, ‘B’ increases • Magnitude (0 – 1) o 1.00 or -1.00 = perfect relationship o 0.0 = no relationship at all o 0.80 or -0.70 = strong relationship o 0.15 or -0.09 = weak relationship ```

Question 36

Define Moderation

Answer 36

Moderation means one variable qualifies the relationship between the other variables • One variable indicates the circumstances under which the relationship between the other variables exists

Question 37

Explain mediation (explanatory mechanism)

Answer 37

* A mediator is a variable or construct that facilitates the relationship between the 2 variables * Below: Rumination is the mediator between stress and depression

Question 38

Define Individual Differences

Answer 38

• Each person is different, one’s identity is defined by a combination of traits and characteristics

Question 39

Define Personality

Answer 39

• Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that characterise a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics

Question 40

What are personality traits

Answer 40

• Traits are distinguishing personal characteristics • Relatively stable • How an individual reacts to and interacts with others • Difficult to measure o Not reliable o Not accurate

Question 41

Where does personality originate?

Answer 41

Nature: Genetics Nurture: Life experiences, relatively fixed by age 30

Question 42

What does OCEAN Stand for?

Answer 42

``` Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism ```

Question 43

What is a proactive personality?

Answer 43

* Tendency to engage in proactive behaviour * Initiative * Related to job performance and career success

Question 44

What is Conscientiousness?

Answer 44

* Tendency to plan and be self-disciplined | * Planned rather that spontaneous

Question 45

What is extraversion?

Answer 45

• Tendency to enjoy human interaction

Question 46

What is Agreeableness?

Answer 46

• A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative

Question 47

What is Neuroticism?

Answer 47

* A tendency towards negative moods | * Experience unpleasant emotions easily

Question 48

Describe Shwartz's value model

Answer 48

1. Openness to Change (Motivation to pursue innovative ways) 2. Conservation (motivation to preserve status quo) 3. Self-enhancement (motivated by self-interest) 4. Self-transcendence (motivation to promote welfare of others) Values oppose each other - Openness to change opposes conservation -Self-enhancement opposes self-transcendence

Question 49

What is the HEXACO Personaliy model?

Answer 49

1. Honesty/Humility 2. Emotionality (Neuroticism) 3. Extroversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness 6. Openness to Experience

Question 50

What is the dark triad of personality?

Answer 50

``` Machiavellianism • Pragmatic • Maintains emotional distance • Believes ends can justify means Narcissism • Arrogant • High sense of self importance • Requires excessive admiration Psychopathy • Lack of concern for others • Lack of guilt or remorse • Lack of empathy ```

Question 51

What is the Myer-Briggs Type Inventory

Answer 51

``` • Most widely used • 100 questions • 4 main categories • 16 different personalities • Problems: o Not consistent o Predictive validity- no solid evidence o Construct validity- lack of empirical evidence o Incomplete- leaves out important traits (neuroticism) ```

Question 52

Identify and explain 4 situational factors

Answer 52

``` • Clarity o Cues are available and clear o Not ambiguous • Consistency o Cues all point in the same direction • Constraints o How much freedom is there to act as one wishes? • Consequences o Are there consequences of not acting according to the norms? ```

Question 53

What are core self-evaluations?

Answer 53

Core self-evaluations • Views about one’s capabilities, competence and self-worth o Sense of worthiness • The effect you have on the environment or vice versa • Critical predictor of performance (stronger than the big 5) • Too much is bad o Over confident

Question 54

What is self-monitoring?

Answer 54

Self-monitoring • One’s ability to adjust to external situational factors • Better performance and more likely to be promoted • Adaptive and more mobile o Less committed to the organisation

Question 55

What is a proactive personality?

Answer 55

* Tendency to engage in proactive behaviour * Initiative * Related to job performance and career success

Question 56

What are Hindrance Stressors?

Answer 56

* Constrain / interfere with and individual's work achievement * Do not tend to be associated with potential gains for the individual * Role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, job insecurity, and daily hassles

Question 57

What are Challenge Stressors?

Answer 57

* Demands or circumstances that, although potentially stressful, have associated potential gains for individuals * Time pressure, work complexity

Question 58

What is Psychological Harassment?

Answer 58

* One of the fastest growing sources of workplace stress * Repeated and hostile comments, actions and gestures that affect an employee’s dignity or integrity * Workplace bullying, sexual harassment

Question 59

What is Work Overload?

Answer 59

* Working long hours * Exacerbated by technology, consumerism and globalisation * Undermines work-life balance and psychological detachment

Question 60

List ways to manage stress.

Answer 60

* Job redesign * Flexible worktime * Job Sharing * Child care support * Transfer * Holidays / Personal leave * Recovery /Detachment

Question 61

List 3 alternative work arrangements.

Answer 61

1. Flexible work time 2. Job Sharing 3. Telecommuting

Question 62

List the advantages (5) and disadvantages (1) of flexible work time.

Answer 62

``` Advantages • Reduced absenteeism • Increased productivity • Reduced overtime expenses • Reduced hostility toward management • Increased responsibility for employees ``` Disadvantages • Not applicable for all workers

Question 63

List the advantages (3) and disadvantages (3) of job sharing

Answer 63

Advantages • Increases flexibility and can increase motivation and satisfaction • Declining in use • Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of employees Disadvantages • Administrative costs • Training costs • Staffing issues

Question 64

List the advantages (4) and disadvantages (4) of telecommuting

Answer 64

``` Advantages • Larger labor pool • Higher productivity • Improved morale • Reduced office-space costs ``` Disadvantages (Employer) • Less direct supervision of employees. • Difficult to coordinate teamwork. • Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative performance. Employee) • May not be noticed for his or her efforts.

Question 65

Define Employee Involvement.

Answer 65

A participative process that uses employees’ input to increase their commitment to the organization’s success.

Question 66

What is self-concept?

Answer 66

• Complexity o Number and distinctiveness of the roles or identities that you perceive about yourself o You have multiple self-views • Consistency o Extent to which you exhibit similar personalities or values across multiple selves • Clarity o Extent to which you are clearly and confidently defined • All are assumed to facilitate leader development and help leaders better adjust to cultural settings

Question 67

Explain Representative Management

Answer 67

• Workers are represented by a small group of employees who actively participate in decision making. • Almost every country in Western Europe requires representative participation. • The two most common forms: o Works councils [nominated/elected] o Board representatives • The overall influence of representative participation seems to be minimal!

Question 68

What are the 4 aspects of self-evaluation?

Answer 68

Self-Esteem • Extent to which people like, respect and are satisfied with themselves • High Esteem - Less influenced, more persistent and logical Self-Efficacy • Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions and situation to complete a task successfully Locus of Control • General belief about personal control over life events • Internal v External factors Emotional Stability • Tendency to be confident, secure and steady • Opposite of neuroticism

Question 69

Explain hygiene factors (Herzberg)

Answer 69

``` • Job Context • Presence causes low dissatisfaction, absence causes high dissatisfaction • Examples o Salary o Benefits o Working conditions o Supervision ```

Question 70

Explain Adam's Equity Theory

Answer 70

Employees are motivated by a desire to be treated fairly Perception of equity stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.

Question 71

Explain Compensation (Pay)

Answer 71

Setting someone’s pay is a complex process that entails balancing • Internal Equity o The worth of the job to the organisation o Usually established through a technical process called job evaluation • External Equity o The external competitiveness of an organisation’s pay relative to pay elsewhere in its industry o Usually established through pay surveys

Question 72

Explain Variable Pay Programs (Price-Rate Plans)

Answer 72

• A pure plan provides no base salary and pays the employee only for what he or she produces. o Fruit picking, pay is determined by the volume picked • Not a feasible approach for many jobs. • The main concern for both individual and team piece-rate workers is financial risk o Modified: Base hourly wage + a piece-rate differential

Question 73

Explain Variable Pay Programs (Merit-Based Plans)

Answer 73

• Merit-based pay plans pay for individual performance based on performance appraisal ratings. • Relationship between performance and rewards. • Limitations o Based on performance appraisals  These must be accurate o Merit pool fluctuates  Based on economic conditions o Union resistance  Advocate for seniority-based pay where all employees get the same increases

Question 74

Explain Variable Pay Programs (Bonuses)

Answer 74

• An annual bonus is a significant component of total compensation for many jobs. • Increasingly include lower-ranking employees. • Bonuses reward employees for recent performance rather than historical performance (advantage over merit-based pay) • Drawbacks: o Employees’ pay is more vulnerable to cuts o When bonuses are a large percentage of total pay o Employees may just take bonuses for granted

Question 75

Explain Variable Pay Programs (Profit Sharing)

Answer 75

• Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula centered around a company’s profitability. • Appear to have positive effects on employee attitudes at the organizational level. o Employees have a feeling of psychological ownership.

Question 76

What are 4 Variable Pay Programs?

Answer 76

1. Price Rate Plans 2. Merit Based Plans 3. Bonuses 4. Profit Sharing

Question 77

Explain Flexible Benefits

Answer 77

• Allow each employee to choose the compensation package • Recall the “Valence” dimension of the Vroom’s Expectancy Theory • Flexible benefits individualise rewards o They replace the ‘one-benefit-plan-fits-all’ programs

Question 78

Explain Employee Recognition Programs

Answer 78

• Important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. • Rewards o Intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programs o Extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. • Some studies suggest: o Financial motivators work in the short term o Non-financial motivators work in the long term

Question 79

Define Decision Making

Answer 79

Identifying and choosing alternative solutions that lead to a desired end result

Question 80

Explain Decision Making

Answer 80

* Decision making is a conscious process of making choices among one or more alternatives, with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs. * A problem is defined when there is a gap between an actual and a desired situation

Question 81

List 4 characteristics of a decision maker

Answer 81

``` • Decision makers: o are objective o have complete information o consider all possible alternatives & their consequences o select the optimal solution ```

Question 82

Define Homo Economicus

Answer 82

People can gather and process information without costs and are perfectly logical with only one criterion: economic gain.

Question 83

What are the problems with the rational choice paradigm

Answer 83

* Rarely possible to consider all alternatives * Impractical to consider all consequences * Estimation process costs time & effort * Information is rarely complete & accurate * Lack mental capacity

Question 84

Explain non-rational decision making (Simon Normative Model)

Answer 84

• Bounded rationality: constraints that restrict rational decision making o We construct simplified models that do not capture the complexity of a problem • Satisficing: choosing a solution that meets a minimum standard of acceptance o Finding solutions that are good enough • Intuition is possibly the least rational way to make decisions • As a result o People don’t always follow logical steps when making decisions o We use shortcuts when judging others

Question 85

What are Heuristics

Answer 85

Mental Shortcuts: for coming to a conclusion or decision | Rule of Thumb: people use to make decisions and judgments quickly and efficiently

Question 86

List 8 biases in decision making

Answer 86

1. Overconfidence 2. Anchoring bias 3. Confirmation bias 4. Availability heuristic 5. Escalation of commitment 6. Randomness error 7. Risk aversion 8. Hindsight bias

Question 87

What is overconfidence bias?

Answer 87

o The tendency to be overconfident about estimates or forecasts

Question 88

What is anchoring bias?

Answer 88

o Occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision

Question 89

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 89

o Tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices or to discount info that contradicts past judgements

Question 90

What is availability heuristic bias?

Answer 90

o Tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory

Question 91

What is escalation of commitment bias?

Answer 91

o Tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action even when the cost of continuing outweighs expected benefit o Main causes of escalation:  Self-justification (reducing dissonance: decision couldn’t be bad, just a question of time)  Prospect theory effect (More dissatisfaction from losing rather than breaking even)  Gamblers fallacy (Getting close!)  Consistency norm (I’m not a quitter!)  Closing costs (cost of ending project) o How to avoid escalation:  Encourage continuous experimentation with reframing the problem.  Set specific goals for the project in advance  Place emphasis on how decisions are made and not on their outcomes  Separate initial and subsequent decision making.

Question 92

What is randomness error bias?

Answer 92

o Tendency of individuals to see patterns in random data/events o Superstition

Question 93

What is risk aversion bias?

Answer 93

o Tendency to prefer sure gain of moderate amount over a riskier outcome o Even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected pay-off

Question 94

Hindsight bias?

Answer 94

o Tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome o Reading answers before answering the question

Question 95

Define emotional contagion

Answer 95

Emotions expressed by one person are ‘caught’ by another. • Can occur on both conscious and sub conscious levels • Mimic emotional states • Primitive explanation- yawning shows empathy

Question 96

What are values and what do they tell us?

Answer 96

``` • Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences, actions and behaviours • Values tell us what is o Right or Wrong o Good or bad o Moral or Immoral ```

Question 97

What is the difference between personality and values?

Answer 97

``` Personality Traits 1. What we tend to do 2. Do not oppose each other 3. More innate (nature) (50% genetic) Values 1. What we ought to do 2. Are opposed to another 3. Formed through socialisation (experiences) ```

Question 98

What are terminal values?

Answer 98

``` o Desirable end states of existence o Ultimate long-term goals o For example  An exciting life  Equality  Freedom  Happiness  Self-respect  Friendship ```

Question 99

What are instrumental values?

Answer 99

``` o Preferable modes of behaviour o Means of achieving one’s terminal values o For example  Cheerful  Helpfulness  Respect  Creativity  Responsible ```

Question 100

Describe Shwartz's value model

Answer 100

1. Openness to Change (Motivation to pursue innovative ways) 2. Conservation (motivation to preserve status quo) 3. Self-enhancement (motivated by self-interest) 4. Self-transcendence (motivation to promote welfare of others) Values oppose each other - Openness to change opposes conservation -Self-enhancement opposes self-transcendence

Question 101

What is the personality-job fit theory

Answer 101

``` • 6 personality types 1. Realistic 2. Investigative 3. Artistic 4. Social 5. Enterprising 6. Conventional • Satisfaction and turnover intentions depend on fit between personality and job ```

Question 102

What is person-organisation fit

Answer 102

• People are attracted to and selected by organisations that match their values • Value congruence: similarity between person and organisation value hierarchy. Values are congruent when hierarchies are similar. o Leads to:  Greater job satisfaction  Loyalty  Citizenship (going above and beyond what is expected) behaviours  Lower stress and turnover intentions. • Value-based management helps in ambiguous situations and guides how decision should be made

Question 103

What is value congruence?

Answer 103

• Values are stable so select people accordingly • Value incongruence may be beneficial o Diverse values result in different perspectives o Better decision making • Too much congruence creates a “corporate cult” o Undermine creativity and flexibility

Question 104

What are generation values?

Answer 104

* 3-4 generations in the work force | * Values are formed through socialisation and thus people view the world based on different experiences

Question 105

What are cultural values?

Answer 105

``` • Values differ between countries and cultures • MNC’s must consider this • Hofstede’s Value Dimensions o Power Distance o Individualism/Collectivism o Masculinity/Femininity o Uncertainty Avoidance o Long-term/Short-term Orientation ```

Question 106

Define power distance?

Answer 106

• The degree to which people in a culture accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally

Question 107

Define individualism

Answer 107

• Individualism is the degree to which people in a culture prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups

Question 108

Define Collectivism

Answer 108

• Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups in which they are a part to look after them and protect them

Question 109

Define masculinity and femininity

Answer 109

* Masculinity is the degree to which values such as the acquisition of money and material goods prevail * Femininity is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for others

Question 110

Define Uncertainty avoidance

Answer 110

• The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations

Question 111

Define long and short-term orientation

Answer 111

* Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence * Short-term orientation values the here and now; they accept change more readily and don’t see commitments as impediments to change

Question 112

Describe the affective events theory

Answer 112

* This is the new view (traditionally job satisfaction is seen as an attitude) * Structure, causes, and consequences of affective experiences at work

Question 113

Describe the process of perception

Answer 113

1. Selection 1. Salience: Degree to which something attracts our attention 2. Unusual events 3. Selective Perception: We pay attention to what we are familiar with or what is important 2. Organisation 1. Structuring the information selected into a coherent pattern 3. Interpretation 1. Schemas: Expectations that we hold about people/events 2. Attributions: Explaining other’s behaviours o Internal (personality/character) o External (environment/situation)

Question 114

What are the three components of perception

Answer 114

Perceiver • Past experiences can lead to expectations • Interests/values lead to us focusing on certain pieces of information Situation • Tells you if the target’s behaviour is acceptable/appropriate • It can blur the characteristics of the target or make some of them stand out more Target • Ambiguous targets are more susceptible to interpretation and distortion • The perceiver tries to resolve ambiguities (fill in the gaps) • Less elements results in ambiguous targets

Question 115

What is your personal self?

Answer 115

1. Characteristics/traits that define you 2. Relies on interpersonal comparison 3. Motive of protecting and enhancing personal image

Question 116

What is your relational self?

Answer 116

1. Characteristics or traits that are shared with your relationship partner o Define your role or position in that relationship 2. Personalized bonds of attachment 3. For example o Parent and child relationship o Student and teacher relationship o Motive of protecting the significant other and maintaining the relationship.

Question 117

What is your collective self?

Answer 117

1. Characteristics or traits that differentiate in-group members from members of relevant out-groups. 2. Impersonal bonds, derived from common identification with a group 3. Relies on intergroup comparison processes 4. Motive to protecting the group you belong to

Question 118

What is the process of self-evaluation?

Answer 118

Self-Assessment • Desire to have accurate information about oneself • Once you know yourself you can set realistic goals • Foundation to grow and change Self-Enhancement • Drive to promote or perceive a positive self-view • Better mental and physical health • Inflates personal causation • Blames situation for mistakes Self-Verification • Motivation to confirm and maintain our pre-existing self-concept • Stabilises our self-concept • People prefer feedback consistent with their self-concept • Information is selected that is consistent with our self-concept

Question 119

What are the 4 aspects of self-evaluation?

Answer 119

Self-Esteem • Extent to which people like, respect and are satisfied with themselves • High Esteem - Less influenced, more persistent and logical Self-Efficacy • Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions and situation to complete a task successfully Locus of Control • General belief about personal control over life events • Internal v External factors Emotional Stability • Tendency to be confident, secure and steady • Opposite of neuroticism

Question 120

What are schemas?

Answer 120

Schemas: Mental representations we use to organise our knowledge. • Help us process information through attention and memory • Tend to notice and accept things that fit into our existing schemas • Ambiguous information will be interpreted within the confines of the existing schemas • Contradicting information will confuse us

Question 121

What is attribution theory?

Answer 121

Attribution Theory: Suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. • Internally caused: behaviours under the control of the individual • Externally caused: behaviours seen as a result of outside causes- that is behaviour due to the situation

Question 122

What is distinctiveness?

Answer 122

* If Franky only laughs at this comedian, the distinctiveness is high. * If Franky laughs at everything, then distinctiveness is low.

Question 123

What is consensus?

Answer 123

* If everyone in the audience is laughing, the consensus is high. * If only Franky is laughing consensus is low.

Question 124

What is consistency?

Answer 124

* If Franky always laughs at this comedian, the consistency is high. * If Franky rarely laughs at this comedian, then consistency is low.

Question 125

What is fundamental attribution error?

Answer 125

Tendency to overemphasize dispositional causes for behavior at the expense of situational explanations when judging the behavior of others.

Question 126

Self-serving bias?

Answer 126

Tendency to take credit for successes and to deny responsibility for failures. • Succeed: make dispositional attributions. • Fail: make situational attributions. • For example, school marks

Question 127

What is the actor-observer effect?

Answer 127

Tendency for actors and observers to focus on different causes for behaviour. • Actors make more situational attributions. • Observers make more dispositional attributions.

Question 128

What is selective perception?

Answer 128

Any characteristic that makes a person/object/event stand out increases the probability it will be perceived. • Primacy: Opinions based on first impressions • Recency: Most recent information dominates perceptions • Start/End of lecture or Job Interview

Question 129

Describe the false-consensus effect?

Answer 129

Overestimate similarity with other beliefs or traits of our own • Political views

Question 130

What is group polarization?

Answer 130

* The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members * Groups often produce more extreme views and decisions that individual members would on their own * Common example is when people are rioting.

Question 131

Describe the contrast effect

Answer 131

* We don’t evaluate a person in isolation | * Our reaction to one person is influenced by others we have recently encountered

Question 132

What are stereotypes?

Answer 132

• Judging someone based on our perception of the group to which he or she belongs • Occurs because of: o Categorical thinking o Innate drive to anticipate behaviours • How we stereotype: o Categorize people into groups o Homogenisation is assigning traits to someone due to the group traits o Differentiation is assigning less favourable attributes to other groups

Question 133

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 133

Your own expectations lead to outcomes 1. Have a stereotype (Schema or expectation) 2. Act in a way consistent with that belief 3. The other person creates stereotypical behaviour because of your actions ``` • Occurs with teaching o Positive behaviour → Good student performance → Good teacher expectation • Pygmalion Effect: o High expectations → High performance • Golem Effect: o Low expectations → Poor performance • Galatea Effect: o High self-expectations → High performance ```

Question 134

Define affect

Answer 134

A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience

Question 135

Describe emotions

Answer 135

Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something 1. Caused by a specific event 2. Very brief (seconds or minutes) 3. Specific and numerous in nature (many specific emotions such as anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise) 4. Usually accompanied by distinct facial expressions 5. Action oriented in nature (create action tendency)

Question 136

Define and describe moods

Answer 136

Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual context (in the middle between trait and state) 1. Cause is often general and unclear 2. Last longer than emotions (hours or days) 3. More general (two main dimensions – positive affect and negative affect – that are comprised of multiple specific emotions) 4. Generally, not indicated by distinct expressions 5. Cognitive in nature

Question 137

What are the 6 universal emotions?

Answer 137

Sadness, Anger, Happiness, Disgust, Surprise, Fear

Question 138

Give 5 sources of emotions and moods?

Answer 138

• Personality o Moods and emotions have a trait component o Affect intensity: is a stable individual difference characteristic defined in terms of the typical strength of an individual’s responsiveness • Age o Older people experience less negative emotions • Gender o Women tend to be more emotionally expressive o Women feel emotions more intensely o Women have longer lasting moods • Stress o High levels of stress can worsen moods • Sleep o Poor sleep quality has a negative effect on emotions • Social Activities o Physical, informal and dining increases positive moods • Exercise o Does somewhat improve mood o Biological explanation- endorphins, hormone for happiness o Works well for depressed people • Weather o Impacts on sleepiness and tiredness (natural sunlight) o Effects the extent to which you feel negative affect o Low neuroticism leads to a smaller impact • Time of Day o Mood improves throughout the day o In the morning mood is most negative • Day of the Week o Sundays most cultures seem the happiest o Monday shows a lower level of happiness

Question 139

What is the positivity offset?

Answer 139

When nothing is going on we tend to experience a mildly positive mood, rather than a neutral one.

Question 140

What is the asymmetry effect?

Answer 140

People think about events that triggered strong negative emotions about 5 times longer than they think about events that triggered strong positive emotions. o More tuned to negative emotions o Primitive perspective- ignoring a negative effect is more harmful

Question 141

Identify 4 effects of positive emotions

Answer 141

• Broaden attention, thinking-style and your action potential o More likely to interact socially • Build durable personal psychological capital (i.e. physical, intellectual and social resources) • Undo lingering effects of negative emotions; • Increase resilience • Boost your immune system • Create an upward spiral towards growth, & enhanced emotional & physical wellbeing • Provide a threshold for human flourishing

Question 142

How can a manager intrinsically motivate others

Answer 142

``` • Make them feel competent o Train them o Set challenging goals • Make them feel autonomous o Make it interesting o Give them options • Make them feel related o Create opportunities for interactions o Team work ```

Question 143

What is surface acting?

Answer 143

o Hiding one’s feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules

Question 144

What is deep acting?

Answer 144

o Trying to modify one’s true feelings based on display rules

Question 145

Define emotional dissonance

Answer 145

The psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are required to display are different from the emotions experienced at that moment. • People who: o Find it difficult to display expected emotions accurately o Hide true emotions • Conflict between true and required emotions

Question 146

Define emotional contagion

Answer 146

Emotions expressed by one person are ‘caught’ by another. • Can occur on both conscious and sub conscious levels • Mimic emotional states • Primitive explanation- yawning shows empathy

Question 147

What are the 4 individual differences in decision making?

Answer 147

1. Personality 2. Gender 3. Mental Ability 4. Emotions

Question 148

What are ethical decisions?

Answer 148

* A focus on utilitarianism promotes efficiency and productivity, but can sideline the rights of some individuals, particularly those with minority representation. * Use of rights protects individuals from injury and is consistent with freedom and privacy but can create a legalistic environment that hinders productivity and efficiency. * A focus on justice protects the interests of the under-represented and less powerful but can encourage a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovation and productivity.

Question 149

Define creativity

Answer 149

The production of novel and useful ideas

Question 150

How is survey feedback used for organisational development?

Answer 150

``` • Use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member perceptions • Survey on: o Decision making o Communication effectiveness o Job satisfaction o Climate • Data redistributed to employees o Identify problems o Clarify issues o Encourage discussion ```

Question 151

What is convergent thinking?

Answer 151

* Straightforward problem solving using existing knowledge, rules, procedures * Uses logic

Question 152

Define novel ideas

Answer 152

o Are unique compared to other ideas currently available

Question 153

Define useful (goal appropriate) ideas

Answer 153

o Have the potential to add value in either the short or long term

Question 154

Explain the three creative outcomes.

Answer 154

``` • Fluency o # of ideas generated • Flexibility o # of categories of ideas referenced • Originality o the production of ideas that are unique from all other ideas ```

Question 155

Explain the difference between creativity and innovation

Answer 155

* Creativity is the process (or the outcome of this process) of forming something (e.g., solution, idea) that is novel and useful. * Innovation is the implementation or production of something new (e.g., product, service). * “Creativity is about coming up with the big idea. Innovation is about executing the idea — converting the idea into a successful business.”

Question 156

Creativity is not...

Answer 156

• Art o You can be creative in every domain (not just art) • Intelligence o Intelligence contributes to creativity o Although above modestly high IQ’s, there is no significant relationship between intelligence and creativity. • Good o Novel and goal-appropriate (useful) behaviors can be evil and destructive

Question 157

What are the 4 characteristics of creative people?

Answer 157

1. Independent imagination 2. Knowledge and experience 3. Persistence 4. Cognitive and practical intelligence

Question 158

Define a team

Answer 158

* Groups of two or more people * Exist to fulfill a purpose * Mutually accountable for achieving common goals * Interdependent – interact and influence each other * Perceive themselves as a social entity

Question 159

What are the difference between work groups and work teams

Answer 159

Work groups 1. Share information (goal) 2. Neutral synergy 3. Individual accountability 4. Random and varied skills Work teams 1. Collective performance (goal) 2. Positive synergy 3. Individual and mutual accountability 4. Complementary skills

Question 160

Explain functional teams

Answer 160

A group of employees in teh same functional department (i.e. marketing or R&D) who have a common objective

Question 161

Explains cross-functional teams

Answer 161

A group of employees from different functional departments that are brought together

Question 162

Explain problem solving teams

Answer 162

Teams were typically composed of 5-12 employees from the same department

Question 163

Explain self-managed teams

Answer 163

Relatively autonomous teams whose members share or rotate leadership positions and are mutually responsible

Question 164

Explain virtual teams

Answer 164

Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve common

Question 165

Explain multi-team systems

Answer 165

Collections of two or more interdependent teams that share a super ordinate goal- they are a team of teams

Question 166

What are the 5 stages of group development (Tuckman)

Answer 166

1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning

Question 167

Identify and explain the 4 contextual factors that affect team effectiveness

Answer 167

o Adequate resources  Teams rely on resources outside the group to sustain it  A scarcity of resources directly reduces the ability of the team to perform its job effectively o Leadership and structure  Teams can’t function if they can’t agree on who is to do what  There are some exceptions like Self-Managed Teams  Important in multi-team systems o Climate of trust  Trust each other and exhibit trust in their leaders  More willing to take risks and are more willing to commit to their leader’s goals and decisions o Performance evaluation and reward systems  Individual performance may not be recognised in teams  Should reward individuals and groups

Question 168

Identify and explain the 6 composition factors that affect team effectiveness

Answer 168

``` o Abilities of members  Skills and training o Personality  Agreeableness (too much is detrimental)  Conscientiousness  Achievement-orientation  Mixture of introvert and extrovert o Allocating roles o Diversity/Cultural differences  Educational background  Race/Sex are mostly unrelated to performance  Age has no effect o Size of teams  Ideally 5-9 o Member preferences ```

Question 169

Identify and explain the 8 process factors that affect team effectiveness

Answer 169

o Common purpose  analysing the team’s mission  developing goals to achieve that mission  creating strategies for achieving the goals o Specific goals  Successful teams translate their common purpose into SMART goals o Team efficacy  Effective teams have confidence in themselves and believe they can succeed  Increase by training, mentoring, raising expectancies o Team identity  Your collective self contains characteristics or traits that differentiate in-group members from members of relevant out-groups. o Team cohesion  the degree to which the members of a group desire to remain in the group  Is how resistant the group is to disrupting influences o Mental models  organized mental representations of the key elements within a team’s environment that team members share o Conflict levels  Task-based: cognitive conflict related to the task  Relationship-based: socio-emotional conflict because of interpersonal disagreement  Multiple points of view can be incorporated  Relationship conflict is detrimental almost under any circumstances. o Social loafing  Team collective effort tends to decrease as the size of the team increases.  Perceived inequity of effort: others are inept, so you reduce your work  Solutions: Upgrade task importance, reward individuals and check team norms

Question 170

List 4 advantages and disadvantages of teams

Answer 170

``` Advantages • Task more meaningful • Better connection with client needs • Diverse teams make better decisions • Increase member commitment, motivation and engagement ``` Disadvantages • Higher task requirements • Teams do not always produce better outcomes • Distribute leader’s personal accountability • Process losses

Question 171

What are the advantages of group decision making?

Answer 171

• Groups generate more ideas. • Groups are more vigilant (better evaluation). • Better Acceptance and Commitment: o People wish to be involved in a decision that will affect them. o People will better understand a decision in which they participate. o People will be more committed to a decision in which they invested personal time and energy.

Question 172

What are the disadvantages of group decision making?

Answer 172

• Time o Groups do not work quickly or efficiently. • Conflict o Group members have personal axes to grind or their own resources to protect. • Domination o An individual or coalition can adversely dominate the group. • Groupthink o The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency. o The norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action • Group Polarization o Tendency for groups to make risky or conservative decisions

Question 173

What are the causes of group think?

Answer 173

• Causes: o Cohesiveness (strong norms, high conformity) o Isolation (less accessible outside information) o Illusion of infallibility & Moral superiority (No questioning, not making any mistakes) o Pressure to conform to group norms o Pushy-Leader o Gatekeepers who keep information from group members

Question 174

What are the consequences of group think?

Answer 174

o Incomplete examination of alternatives (people remain silent) o Failure to examine the risks involved. o Poor information search & sharing

Question 175

How do you minimise group think?

Answer 175

* Group leader encourages thoughtfulness/criticism * Refrains from expressing own opinion and views until group has considered all alternatives * Encourages group members to gather information from outside people * Assigns devil’s advocate (This person should find what’s wrong) * Holds second meeting for important decisions

Question 176

What is group polarization?

Answer 176

* The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members * Groups often produce more extreme views and decisions that individual members would on their own * Common example is when people are rioting.

Question 177

Describe how emotions are relevant in OB

Answer 177

• Decision Making o Positive emotions enhance problem solving skills • Creativity o Activated moods make people more flexible • Motivation o Positive emotions enhance self-efficacy • Leadership o Emotional contagion o Creates optimism and enthusiasm • Negotiation o Negative emotions impair negotiator performance • Work-Family Conflict o Emotional spill over • CWB (Counterproductive work behaviour) o Anger/Frustration may lead to blaming and distort perception • Safety o Negative emotions associated with workplace injury

Question 178

What is emotional intelligence?

Answer 178

The ability to identify and manage your own emotions and the emotions of others.

Question 179

What is the appraisal and expression of emotion in the self?

Answer 179

Being aware both of their mood and of their thoughts concerning that mood • Emotional Appraisal: o The ability to accurately identify another's emotions o Closely linked to empathy • Emotional Expression: o The ability to re-experience these emotions oneself

Question 180

Describe the regulation of emotion in the self and others

Answer 180

* Refers to the ability to be able to monitor and evaluate one’s mood and then acting to change one's mood * Repair unpleasant moods while maintaining pleasant ones * Includes also the ability to alter the affective reactions of others (e.g., the ability to calm distressing emotions in other individuals)

Question 181

What are the advantages of emotional intelligence?

Answer 181

``` Biologically based Superior negotiating Leadership effectiveness Life Satisfaction Lower insecurity + depression ```

Question 182

What are the disadvantages of emotional intelligence?

Answer 182

Vague construct Low predictive power Susceptible to faking

Question 183

What are attitudes?

Answer 183

Evaluative statements or judgments. • Either favourable or unfavourable - concerning objects, people, or events. • They reflect how you feel about something.

Question 184

What are the three components of attitudes?

Answer 184

1. Cognitive (Evaluation) o A description of belief in the way things are o Supervisor gave a raise to someone who deserved it less 2. Affective (Feeling) o The emotional or feeling part o This makes me angry 3. Behavioural (Action) o The intention to behave in a certain way towards others o I’m looking for another position. I filed a complaint about the supervisor

Question 185

What are the social and organisational attitudes?

Answer 185

* Evaluate: varying along a good and bad dimension * Acquired through experience (work, family, religion, culture) * There is a behavioural predisposition (Distinct from behavioural intention)

Question 186

What is fishbein and ajzen's theory of reasoned action?

Answer 186

Attitude towards behaviour • Based on Subjective Expected Utility approach o A function of beliefs about what the act will lead to weighted by the evaluations of those outcomes Subjective Norms • Beliefs about what others want you to do weighted by motivations to comply with those persons. o Note here links to both cross-cultural psychology and individual differences

Question 187

Define cognitive dissonance

Answer 187

any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviours and attitudes. • Attitudes may also follow behaviour • Inconsistency is uncomfortable and causes tension. • People alter attitudes or behaviours to reduce this inconsistency.

Question 188

Describe job satisfaction

Answer 188

A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context. • A collection of attitudes about specific facets of the job and work context. • Happy workers are more productive • Overall satisfaction is the sum of all facet satisfactions

Question 189

How do you measure job satisfaction?

Answer 189

• Global satisfaction: Looks at job satisfaction overall • Facet satisfaction: Looks at different elements or facets • JDI (Job Descriptive Index) o Facet approach  Supervisor  Co-workers  Pay  Promotions  Work itself • MSQ (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire)

Question 190

Describe Herzberg's two-factor theory

Answer 190

• Job Satisfaction is qualitatively different from Job Dissatisfaction. • Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are different dimensions. • Examples: o high in satisfaction and low in dissatisfaction (most desirable) o low in satisfaction and high in dissatisfaction (least desirable)

Question 191

Describe job dissatisfaction

Answer 191

Occurs when hygiene needs are not met • Influenced by Hygiene Factors (Job context) o Base salaries o Benefits o Working conditions • Improving hygiene decreases job dissatisfaction • Meeting hygiene needs only makes you NOT DISSATISFIED (neutral).

Question 192

Describe job satisfaction

Answer 192

Occurs when motivator needs are met • Influenced by motivator factors (Job content) o Achievement o Recognition o Responsibility • Improving motivator factors improves job satisfaction • Not meeting them leads to NOT SATISFIED, which is not dissatisfaction but neutral.

Question 193

Describe the affective events theory

Answer 193

* This is the new view (traditionally job satisfaction is seen as an attitude) * Structure, causes, and consequences of affective experiences at work

Question 194

Explain brainstorming as a decision making technique

Answer 194

o Group sits around a table and one member describes the problem or opportunity o Group members share their own ideas in a free and open manner o No critical evaluation of the ideas o Group members come up with as many ideas as possible and “piggy-back” on the ideas of others; o One-member records ideas for later evaluation

Question 195

Explain nominal group technique as a decision making technique

Answer 195

o Group members sit around a table o One member of the group describes the problem or opportunity. o Members come up with ideas and write them down on a piece of paper. o Members present the ideas and list them o Ideas are discussed one by one: members raise questions and objections, and critically evaluate each idea. o Each member privately ranks all alternatives from most preferred to least preferred o The alternative with the highest ranking is chosen

Question 196

Explain Delphi technique as a decision making technique

Answer 196

o Group members never meet face to face. o Advice of experts sought through written communication. o Leader describes the problem and asks others to complete and return a questionnaire. o Leader compiles the responses and sends a summary of them to all group members + any additional questions that need to be answered. o Process is repeated as many times as needed to reach a consensus.

Question 197

Define leadership

Answer 197

The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness of the organisations of which they are members

Question 198

Explain the difference between a manager and a leader

Answer 198

Manager - Impersonal attitude towards vision & goals - Implements the vision - Controls processes, oversees day to day operations identifies & solves problems, monitors results - Low-risk decisions - Accepts status quo Leader - Passionate about vision & goals - Develops the vision - Motivates and inspires, energises employees - High-risk decisions - Challenges status quo

Question 199

Define the trait paradigm

Answer 199

Constitutes the foundation for the field of leadership studies. Idea of the ‘great man’

Question 200

Explain the behavioural paradigm

Answer 200

• Focuses on leader behaviour and leadership styles o Trait paradigm shared a similar idea • Drives from o Behaviours as an outcome of personality traits o Styles a combination of traits, skills and behaviors • Research of the three schools

Question 201

Explain the 3 basic leadership styles (IOWA)

Answer 201

• Autocratic (directive) o Leader orders “what, when, why, & how” of task o Followers do not question • Democratic (participative) o Followers can help leaders to make decisions in the name of the group o Followers are not so different than leaders • Laissez-Faire (delegative) o Leaders do not interfere with decisions made by followers o Followers do what they really think is best

Question 202

What are the 2 dimensions of leader beahviour (Michigan)

Answer 202

• Employee orientation o Leader emphasizes interpersonal relations o Takes personal interest in the needs of employees o Treats followers as unique, meets their personal needs o Higher group productivity and satisfaction • Task orientation o Leader emphasizes technical aspects of work o Followers are merely the tools for completing the work

Question 203

What are the 2 dimensions of leadership behaviour (Ohio)

Answer 203

• Consideration o Trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings o Friendly & approachable o Followers participate in decision making • Initiating Structure o Leader defines the role of followers o Followers do not question how things got structured o Leader maintains performance standards o Scheduling & planning tasks • High-High leaders resulted in high task performance and satisfaction • Situational factors play an important role

Question 204

Define contingency models

Answer 204

Contingency leadership theories try to explain the suitable leadership style depending on leaders, followers and the situation

Question 205

Explain Fiedler's Model

Answer 205

• The effect on performance is related to the situational factors o Leader-member relationship (mutual trust and respect) o Task structure (clearly defined tasks) o Leader’s position power (authority)

Question 206

Explain the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

Answer 206

• Leaders have ‘favourites’ • Create in-group and out-group o In-group subordinates  High performance ratings, trust, better supervision, more autonomy and responsibility  less turnover and greater job satisfaction o Out-group subordinates o Withdrawn members with negative work attitudes, given basic responsibilities and few rewards

Question 207

What are the 3 stages of the leader-member exchange (LMX)

Answer 207

3 Stages o Role taking  Leader ‘tests’ members skills, talents and motivation o Role making  Leader learns who is trustworthy and who isn’t and begins sorting employees into groups (in-group vs out-group) o Routinisation  In-group members maintain great relationship with leader and form a cohesive team. Out-group members learn to distrust the leader and show signs of withdrawal

Question 208

Define transactional leadership

Answer 208

Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements

Question 209

Explain transactional leadership tactics

Answer 209

• Contingent reward o Contracts exchange of rewards for effort o Promises rewards for good performance o Recognises accomplishments • Management by Exception (Active) o Actively monitor people’s behavior to avoid deviance. Punish when deviant. • Management by Exception (Passive) o Intervenes only if standards are not met o Wait for deviance to occur before taking corrective measures. • Laissez-faire o Abdicates responsibilities o Avoids making decisions

Question 210

Define transformational leadership

Answer 210

Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers

Question 211

Explain transformational leadership

Answer 211

• Idealised influence o Perceived as capable, persistent and determined. o Convey admiration, respect and trust. o Makes followers want to identify with the leader and emulate him/her. • Inspirational motivation o Display enthusiasm and unfailing optimism. o Create team spirit. o Communicate expectations about follower behaviour and commitment to goals. o Challenging, persuasive, meaningful, understandable vision. • Individualised Consideration o Acknowledge individual differences and attend to individual needs. o Create learning opportunities. o Supportive climate with direct contact (good listener). o Delegate and show trust in followers. o Provide followers with support, mentoring, and coaching. • Intellectual Stimulation o They question assumptions, reframe problems and approach old situations in new ways. o Encourage creativity. o Allow mistakes. o Pushes followers to use their skills and abilities.

Question 212

What are the outcomes (6) of transformational leadership?

Answer 212

* Higher productivity & organisational effectiveness * Higher morale and job satisfaction * Higher creativity * Lower turnover * Lower absenteeism * Greater organisational adaptability

Question 213

Define Charisma

Answer 213

• Compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire devotion in others

Question 214

Explain Max Weber's Conceptualisation of Charisma

Answer 214

• The follower accepts this course of action not because of its rational likelihood of success but because of an effective belief in the extraordinary qualities of the leader

Question 215

List the 4 behavioural attitudes of charismatic leaders

Answer 215

1. Dissatisfaction with the status quo 2. Compelling in their vision 3. Uses unconventional strategies 4. Has a realistic assessment of the resources needed to make the change

Question 216

Explain ethical and authenitc leadership

Answer 216

• Personalized charismatic/pseudo-transformational leadership: o Personal dominance and authoritarian behavior. o Self-aggrandizing, exploitative, manipulative, self-interested. • Socialized charismatic/transformational leadership: o Legitimate authority, egalitarian, empowering others o Serving collective interests, altruistic

Question 217

What are 7 practices of ethical leadership

Answer 217

Fairness -Do not practice favouritism, treat others in a way that is right and equal, make principled and fair choices Power Sharing -Allow followers a say in decision making and listen to their ideas and concerns Role Clarification -Clarify responsibilities, expectations and performance goals People Orientated -Care about, respect and support followers Integrity -Consistence of words and acts and keeping promises Ethical guidance -Communicate about ethics, explain ethical rules, promote and reward ethical conduct Concern for Sustainability -Care about the environment and stimulate recycling

Question 218

What does ELVN Stand for?

Answer 218

``` Exit Voice Loyalty Neglect Retaliate ```

Question 219

What is organisational commitment?

Answer 219

• Normative Commitment: feeling of obligation to stay with the organisation o Values, family, co-workers • Continuance Commitment: calculative attachment to an organisation o Status, financial • Affective Commitment: emotional attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organisation o More strongly related to performance

Question 220

What is job involvement?

Answer 220

o The degree to which a person identifies psychologically with their job, actively participates in it and considers their perceived performance level important to self-worth

Question 221

What is employee engagement?

Answer 221

o An individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work he or she does

Question 222

Describe psychological empowerment

Answer 222

o Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy in their work

Question 223

Describe perceived organisational support

Answer 223

o The degree to which employees believe the organisation values their contribution and cares about their well-being

Question 224

Define motivation

Answer 224

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. There is a tendency to think of job performance as a combination of ability and motivation Job performance • f (ability, motivation) • ‘can do’ ‘will do’

Question 225

Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 225

• You must satisfy needs at the bottom before you ascend • The first 4 needs are deficit needs o Tension-reduction process o Behave to reduce tension and frustration • Self-Actualisation o Can’t be fulfilled o Not everyone reaches this point • Concepts are difficult to operationalize

Question 226

Describe Theory X and Theory Y

Answer 226

``` • Theory X assumes that employees: o Dislike work o Lack ambition o Avoid responsibility o And must be directed and coerced to perform ``` ``` • Theory Y assumes that employees: o Like work o Seek responsibility o Capable of making decisions o Exercise self-direction and self-control ``` • Evidence o No good research then/now o Evidence that a theory X approach can damage well-being

Question 227

Describe Herzberg's Two-factor theory

Answer 227

• Grouped the physical and safety needs together to get hygiene needs o Frustration focus: Meeting them leads to less “dissatisfaction”. o But doesn’t lead to “satisfaction”. • Grouped the social, esteem and self-actualization needs together to get motivator needs o Satisfaction focus: Meeting them leads to more “satisfaction”. o No hierarchy of needs, just two dimensions.

Question 228

Describe Mclelland's Achievement motivation theory

Answer 228

Motivation is a function of the desire for fulfillment of 3 needs: • Need for Achievement o The need to succeed o Unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments o Goal-orientated o Performs well in competitive situations • Need for Power o The need to exert control over others o Unconscious concern for influencing others o Characteristics of dominance, self-confidence and high energy o Naturally controls the situation, influences and controls others and enjoys competition o Negative correlation with affiliation o Personalised:  Using power to advance personal interest/status o Socialised:  Using power to help others • Need for Affiliation o The need to be liked and accepted by others o Unconscious concern for developing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships o More sensitive and empathetic o May make poor decisions in an effort to please others

Question 229

Describe Skinner's Operant Learning Theory

Answer 229

* Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behaviour and its consequences * Behaviour becomes a function of its consequences

Question 230

What are the consequences of behaviour?

Answer 230

• Positive reinforcement o Administering positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviours o Give bonuses or praise performance o Most intuitive • Negative reinforcement o Removing negative consequences when workers perform o If you aren’t wearing your hardhat you must complete a lengthy report • Extinction o Removing what is currently reinforcing the behaviour o Stop laughing at someone’s inappropriate jokes • Punishment o Administering negative consequences o Getting fired for not doing work band talking on their mobile

Question 231

What is OB Modification

Answer 231

• The systematic application of the principles of operant conditioning for teaching and managing organizational behaviours • Behaviour must be measurable o Expensive to closely monitor

Question 232

What is Vroom's Expectancy (VIE) Theory

Answer 232

Assumes that employees are rational and that their behaviour is guided by a cost-benefit analysis of a course of action. • Assumes humans are smarter than animals and can understand the consequences/rewards

Question 233

What are the three components of VIE Theory

Answer 233

• Expectancy (E → P) o Perceived relationship between effort and performance (regarding an outcome). o They are capable of performing their work o Correlation 0 - 1 • Instrumentality (P → O) o Perceived relationship between performance and outcome. o Their efforts will result in a certain outcome. o Correlation 0 - 1 • Valence o Degree to which an outcome is desirable to an individual. o The payoffs for doing their work are worthwhile. o Usually scored as –10 (very undesirable) to +10 (very desirable) with 0 indicating no preference.

Question 234

What are the actions to increase each aspect of VIE theory

Answer 234

ncrease Expectancy (E → P) o Develops employee skills and experience o Provide role clarity o Self-efficacy beliefs • Increase Instrumentality (P → O) o Measure performance accurately o Increase rewards with desired outcomes o Explain the link between performance and outcomes • Increase Valence of Outcomes o Ensure reward is valued o Minimise counter valent outcomes

Question 235

What is goal setting theory

Answer 235

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. Evidence Suggests: • Specific goals increase performance. • Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. • Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.

Question 236

What are 4 characteristics of specific goals

Answer 236

• Clear: non-ambiguous (e.g., I want to be a better person vs. I want to help animals in need) • Precise: exact level of achievement (e.g., I want to help animals get adopted) • Concrete: accurate means for achieving (e.g., I will volunteer for an animal shelter) • Measurable: can assess progress (e.g., I will volunteer once a week for 3 hours). Feedback: Needed to compare current performance to desired performance. Commitment: Accepting the goal and be willing to achieve it. How to? • Participate in goal setting (or self-set them). • Make sure the goal and its outcome are valued.

Question 237

What are SMARTER goals

Answer 237

* Specific what, how, where, when and with whom the task needs to be accomplished * Measurable how much, how well, at what cost * Achievable challenging, yet accepted (E–to–P) * Relevant within employee’s control * Time-framed due date and when assessed * Exciting employee commitment, not just compliance * Reviewed feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment

Question 238

Give 5 Mistakes in applying goals

Answer 238

* Establishing too many goals * Not requiring a plan for how and when goals will be achieved * Failing to push for significant improvements for fear that people are already overwhelmed * Not assigning clear one-person accountability for each key goal * Signalling an unspoken “if you possibly can” “do the best you can” * Framing goals in ways that may not be definable or measurable

Question 239

What are the limits of goal setting

Answer 239

• Specific and difficult goals do not lead to high motivation/performance when: o Employees lack skills o Difficult to set goals on creativity

Question 240

Describe self-efficacy theory

Answer 240

Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. Beliefs greatly affect motivation

Question 241

How does one increase self-efficacy?

Answer 241

• Enactive Mastery o Gaining relevant experience with the task or job • Vicarious Modelling o Becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task • Verbal Persuasion o Occurring when a person is more confident because someone convinces him that (s)he has the skills • Arousal o Leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete the task

Question 242

Define Adams' Equity Theory

Answer 242

Perception of equity stem from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. Inequity creates tension

Question 243

Define Distributive justice

Answer 243

* Fairness of outcomes received in exchange for work done. | * Employees are motivated by a desire to be treated fairly

Question 244

How is equity linked to motivation?

Answer 244

* When equity is perceived (things are fair), employees will be more focused and more motivated * If equity is not achieved, motivation will be to fix the inequity balance

Question 245

Describe procedural justice

Answer 245

* Fairness of the process that led to receiving those outcomes. e.g., performance evaluation * Consistency of procedures across time and people. * Use of “objective criteria” or accurate information in performance evaluation * Participation and voice (Two-way communication, and appeals process). * Inform employees: access to information, explain decisions

Question 246

What is self-determination theory?

Answer 246

extent to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined • People like to have control over their actions. • People seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others. • Intrinsic motivation o The satisfaction of basic psychological needs  Autonomy: feeling that you chose to do the task because you wanted to (no pressure)  Competence: feeling that you can master the task (self-efficacy)  Relatedness: feeling connect to other people (meaningful relationship, part of a community, not alienated) o These needs are innate and universal o Satisfying these needs fosters one’s mental health and well-being. • Problem with extrinsic motivation o Rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation (because they sometimes make people feel less autonomous)

Question 247

How can a manager intrinsically motivate others

Answer 247

``` • Make them feel competent o Train them o Set challenging goals • Make them feel autonomous o Make it interesting o Give them options • Make them feel related o Create opportunities for interactions o Team work ```

Question 248

What is organisational change?

Answer 248

• A company’s process of transition from its current state to some desired future state. o Change in strategy o Re-structuring o Culture re-definition o Introduction of new technologies and/or working methods

Question 249

Why is organisational change required?

Answer 249

* Changing workforce (people require more autonomy; job rotation has been implemented) * Technology (lecture capture system) * Global competition (Companies must compete on a global level) * Economic shocks (GFC 2008) * Politics

Question 250

How does a change in management occur?

Answer 250

• Core elements o Organisational assessment  Identify current state of the situation o Development planning  Gain a clear picture of the desired future state o Change management  Close the gap between current and desired state

Question 251

Describe Lewin's force field analysis model

Answer 251

* Unfreezing the status quo * Movement to a desired state * Refreezing the new change and make it permanent * Driving vs restraining forces

Question 252

Why is there resistance to change?

Answer 252

* Negative valence (perception) of change * Change is threatening * Fear of the unknown * Breaking routines * Incongruent team dynamics & organisational systems

Question 253

How is resistance to change overcome

Answer 253

* Prevention: selection & recruitment * Education and communication * Participation * Trust, support and commitment * Learning / training * Stress management * Negotiation * Coercion

Question 254

Describe organisational development

Answer 254

``` • Ongoing systematic process of implementing organisational change • Collection of change interventions to improve organisational effectiveness and employee well-being • Underlying values: o Respect for people o Trust and support o Power equalisation o Confrontation o Participation ```

Question 255

What are some outcomes of ethical leadership?

Answer 255

``` • Perceived ethical leadership positively related to: o Leader effectiveness o Team and organizational commitment o Trust o Job satisfaction ```

Question 256

Explain servent leadership

Answer 256

• The view that leaders serve followers; leaders help employees fulfil their needs and are coaches, stewards and facilitators of employee development: o do not view leadership as a position of power o Show sensitivity to others’ personal concerns o Servanthood: Serve others first, even when self-sacrifice is required o Uniquely predicts citizenship, core performance and org. commitment above and beyond transformational leadership

Question 257

Define power

Answer 257

Capacity of Person A to influence Person B to do something they would otherwise not do

Question 258

Explain Dependence

Answer 258

* I can exert power/influence over someone to the extent that I possess something that the other person values, desires or depends on * The greater B’s dependency on A, the more power A has over B 1. Importance (Can exert influence if you are important to a company, engineers-NASA) 2. Scarcity (If plentiful it won’t increase your power) 3. Non-substitutability (Greater influence if there are less viable substitutes)

Question 259

Explain the difference between leadership and power

Answer 259

Leadership: Goals of leaders and followers somewhat congruent Downward influence Focused on style Power No congruence required Downward, upward, lateral influence Focused on tactics to gain compliance

Question 260

What are the 6 elements of organisational structure

Answer 260

1. Work specialisation 2. Departmentalisation 3. Chain of command 4. Span of control 5. Centralisation / Decentralisation 6. Formalisation

Question 261

Explain Coercive Power (Position)

Answer 261

o A power base that is dependent on fear o Application of threat o Negative reinforcement

Question 262

Explain Reward Power (Position)

Answer 262

o Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that other view as valuable o Opposite of Coercive power o Positive reinforcement

Question 263

Explain Information Power (Position)

Answer 263

o Possessing knowledge that others need or want o Knowledge is power o Access to vital information

Question 264

Explain Expert Power (Person)

Answer 264

o Influence based on special skills or knowledge | o Experts get paid more money and have a larger say in business decisions

Question 265

Explain Referent Power (Person)

Answer 265

o Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits o Desire to please those who we like/admire/respect o Celebrity endorsements

Question 266

Explain Connection Power (Person)

Answer 266

o Using influential people to help persuade others | o “It’s Not What You Know. It’s Who You Know”

Question 267

List the 4 consequences of Power

Answer 267

1. Emotions 2. Social behaviour 3. Social Attention 4. Social Cognition

Question 268

Explain Emotions as a consequence of power

Answer 268

o Elevated power will be associated with the increased experience and expression of positive mood. o Power has a positive impact on your mood and affect o Less power results in fear, embarrassment and guilt o Sense of power: Amusement, desire, enthusiasm, happiness, love

Question 269

Explain Social Behaviour as a consequence of power

Answer 269

o Elevated Power Increases the Likelihood of approach-orientated behaviour o Elevated power should increase the performance of simple approach behaviors  entering the social space of others  initiating physical contact [touching behavior] o Low-power individuals are more likely to abide by social norms o Low power individuals are less likely to express their own ideas.

Question 270

Explain Social Attention as a consequence of power

Answer 270

o Elevated Power Increases the Sensitivity to Rewards  Powerful people quicker to detect opportunities for material rewards  Other as a mean to own ends o Reduced Power Increases the Sensitivity to Threat and punishment  People with less power are more likely to interpret ambiguous events as more threatening  Serves as a means to others’ ends

Question 271

Explain Social Cognition as a consequence of power

Answer 271

o High power individuals will be:  More prone to stereotype others  Less likely to attend to individuation information in making judgements about others  Judge others’ attitudes, interests and positions o Low power individuals concentrate their gaze more on others (particularly of elevated status)

Question 272

List the 10 power tactics

Answer 272

• Legitimacy o Relying on your authority position to or saying that a request accords with organisational rules/policies to enforce compliance • Ingratiation o Using flattery, praise, or friendly behaviour prior to making a request • Rational Persuasion o Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to show that the request is reasonable • Assertiveness o Use of demands, threats, or intimidation to convince someone to comply with a request or to support a proposal. • Personal Appeal o Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty • Consultation o Increasing the target’s support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan • Exchange o Rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request • Inspirational Appeal o Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes and aspirations. • Coalition o Using the aid or support of others to persuade the target • Blocking o The person threatens to stop working with others, stop being friendly with others, engages in a work slow-down.

Question 273

Explain Obedience as a form of power

Answer 273

• Change in behavior in response to direct request from an authority figure (Milgram’s research) • Increasing obedience: o More difficult to resist the orders from an authority figure if they are close by o Milgram’s experimenter wore a laboratory coat (a symbol of scientific expertise) which gave him a high status • Decreasing obedience: o The presence of others who are seen to disobey the authority figure reduces the level of obedience to 10%. o The experiment was moved to a set of run down offices rather than Yale University. o Obedience dropped to 47.5%.

Question 274

Explain Conformity as a form of power

Answer 274

* We desire to be one of the group and avoid being visibly different * Group norms can press us towards conformity * Employees can be tempted to adjust their beliefs in response to group pressure, so as to achieve consensus. * To fix this, assign a devil’s advocate

Question 275

Explain Organisational Politics

Answer 275

* Variety of activities aimed at influencing the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organisation. * Form of intentional enhancement of self-interest * Examples: blaming others, spreading rumours, leaking confidential information, lobbying etc.

Question 276

Explain the antecedents of Organisational Politics

Answer 276

o Individual factors  Self-monitoring, Internal locus of control, need for power, Machiavellianism, likelihood of success o Organisational factors  Scarcity of resources, individual and group competition, low trust, role ambiguity, promotion opportunities, subjective performance appraisal criteria

Question 277

Explain the Consequences of Organisational Politics

Answer 277

o ‘Politically astute’ employees get higher performance evaluations; larger salary increases and more promotions than ‘politically inept’ o General responses to organisational politics o - performance, job satisfaction o + anxiety, turnover

Question 278

Explain Impression Management

Answer 278

• Process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions that others form of them o Ingratiation, self-promotion o Especially influential in interviews o Performance appraisals: ingratiation increases it, self-promotion tends to backfire

Question 279

Explain Conflict

Answer 279

• A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has been negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect • Conflict happens when two or more people perceive that their individual goals are mutually exclusive; accomplishing one’s goal keeps another's from being achieved • It is a perception o If no one is aware it exists, it is generally agreed that it doesn’t exist

Question 280

Explain Organisational Conflict

Answer 280

• Self-interested struggle that arises when goal-directed behaviour of one person or group blocks the goal-directed behaviour of another person or group.

Question 281

List the 5 sources of organisational conflict

Answer 281

• Differentiation o Differences in functional orientation, incompatible goals, status inconsistencies • Task relationships o Overlapping authority, task interdependencies and incompatible evaluation systems • Scarcity of resources • Ambiguous rules • Poor communication

Question 282

What are two types of conflict?

Answer 282

• Functional o Conflict supports the goal of the group • Dysfunctional o Conflict hinders group performance

Question 283

Explain functional conflict

Answer 283

* Critical evaluation of ideas * Goals held in common are pursued * Open and predictable * Accurate representation of own needs * Time devoted to finding solutions to problems and utilizing logical processes * Ideas are given consideration based on merit

Question 284

Explain dysfunctional conflict

Answer 284

* Evaluation focused on the behaviour and personality of other members * Personal goals pursued * Secretive and unpredictable * Personal needs disguised * Time devoted to non-rational and irrational arguments * Evaluation of ideas based on bad stereotype of the other

Question 285

What are the 3 main categories of conflict

Answer 285

• Relationship Conflict o Focuses on interpersonal relationships o Almost always dysfunctional o Increases personality clashes and decreases mutual understanding o Very exhausting to individuals • Task Conflict o relates to the content and goals of the work o Moderate conflict is optimal o Individuals who are open to experience are better able to turn conflict into performance • Process Conflict o is about how the work gets done o Delegation and roles o Often devolves into relationship conflict

Question 286

What are the loci of conflict?

Answer 286

* Dyadic conflict is conflict between two people * Intragroup conflict occurs within a group or team * Intergroup conflict is conflict between groups or teams * Intraindividual conflict is conflict within a person

Question 287

Explain the avoiding conflict style

Answer 287

Involves: • Passively ignoring the conflict rather than resolve it • Becoming unassertive and uncooperative • Refusing to take a stance or escaping conflict by mentally withdrawing or physically leaving ``` Used when • The conflict is trivial • You’ve got too much to lose • No time to solve it • Hard to control emotions for both of sides ```

Question 288

Explain the accomodating conflict style

Answer 288

Involves: • Passively giving up in to the other party • Becoming unassertive but cooperative Used when: • Maintaining the relationship outweighs all other considerations • Time is limited

Question 289

Explain the competing conflict style

Answer 289

Involves: • Using aggressive behavior to get his/her own way • Becoming uncooperative and aggressive • Using authority, threatening, intimidating and calling for majority rule Used when: • Unpopular action must be taken on important issues. • Commitment by others to proposed action is not crucial to its implementation • Maintaining the relationship is not critical • It’s urgent to be resolved

Question 290

Explain the compromising conflict style

Answer 290

Involves: • Through being assertive and give-and-take decisions Used when: • In presence of complex and critical issues – no simple and clear solution. • Parties do have equal power and seek for different solutions. • Temporary solution • Short time

Question 291

Explain the collaborating conflict style

Answer 291

``` Involves: • Jointly resolving the solution with the best solution agreeable to everyone • Also called as problem-solving style • Becoming assertive and cooperative • Based on open and honest information ``` Used when: • An important issue requires optimal solution • group goals come before self-interest • time is available

Question 292

What are the constructive outcomes of conflict?

Answer 292

* improves the quality of decisions * stimulates creativity and innovation * encourages interest and curiosity * provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released * fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change

Question 293

What are the destructive outcomes of conflict?

Answer 293

* breeds discontent * reduces group effectiveness * threatens the group’s survival

Question 294

Define negotiating

Answer 294

• A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them.

Question 295

Explain how distributing and integrative bargaining differ

Answer 295

``` Goal Motivation Focus Interests Information sharing Duration of relationship ```

Question 296

Define organisational structure

Answer 296

* The manner in which work is formally divided, grouped and coordinated in an organisation * Reporting relationships (organisational chart), Job design, Information flow, Work standards & rules, Team dynamics, Power relationships

Question 297

What are the 6 elements of organisational structure

Answer 297

1. Work specialisation 2. Departmentalisation 3. Chain of command 4. Span of control 5. Centralisation / Decentralisation 6. Formalisation

Question 298

What is process consultation?

Answer 298

• Outside consultant assists management to identify processes that need improvement

Question 299

Describe team building

Answer 299

* High interaction activities to increase trust, cohesion and performance in teams * Goal setting * Interpersonal relation development * Team process analysis

Question 300

Outline intergroup development

Answer 300

* Resolve conflict * Change of attitudes, perceptions, stereotypes * Creation of overarching identity

Question 301

What is appreciative inquiry?

Answer 301

* Focused on identifying and building on the strengths of an organisation * 4 step process: discovery, dreaming, design, destiny

Question 302

Define organisational culture

Answer 302

* A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organisations from other organisations * shared ways of thinking and doing things (mental programming) in a social group

Question 303

What are the 7 primary characteristics of culture, according to O'Reilly

Answer 303

1. Innovation and risk-taking 2. Attention to detail 3. Outcome orientation 4. People orientation 5. Team orientation 6. Aggresiveness 7. Stability

Question 304

What are 4 key types of culture

Answer 304

1. Clan 2. Adhocracy 3. Market 4. Hierarchy

Question 305

Identify the elements of strong cultures

Answer 305

``` • The core values are intensely held and widely shared o drive commitment and motivation o set clear direction o spur pursuit of excellence o assign responsibility and empowerment • Less need for detailed policies and procedures (formalization) • Reduced employee turnover • “The way things are done around here” ```

Question 306

Identify the elements associated with weak cultures

Answer 306

• The core values are not clearly defined, communicated or widely accepted by those working for the organisation o Lead to inconsistent behaviour of people in the organisation o Lead to political games or status quo • Greater need for detailed policies and procedures • Don’t know “the way things are done around here”

Question 307

What are the 4 steps of merging organisational cultures?

Answer 307

1. Assimilation 2. Deculturation 3. Integration 4. Separation

Question 308

How can you improve socialisation within an organisation?

Answer 308

• Improve socialisation through: o Realistic job preview (RJP) - A balance of positive and negative information about the job and work context o Socialisation agents:  Supervisors – technical information, performance feedback, job duties  Coworkers – ideal when accessible, role models, tolerant, and supportive

Question 309

Describe artifacts

Answer 309

* Observable symbols and signs of culture * Physical structures, ceremonies, language, stories * Maintain and transmit organisation’s culture * Need many artefacts to accurately decipher a company’s culture

Question 310

Describe stories

Answer 310

• Social prescriptions of desired (undesired) behaviour • Provide a realistic human side to expectations • Most effective stories and legends: o Describe real people o Are assumed to be true o Are known throughout the organisation o Are prescriptive

Question 311

Describe rituals and superstitions

Answer 311

``` • Rituals o Programmed routines o (how visitors are greeted) • Ceremonies o Planned activities for an audience o (award ceremonies) • Organisational Language o Words used to address people, describe customers o Phrases and special vocabulary as cultural symbols o Language also found in subcultures ```

Question 312

Describe Symbols

Answer 312

``` • Building structure – may shape and reflect culture o Office design conveys cultural meaning o Furniture, office size, wall hangings o Symbols & language o Logos ```

Question 313

Explain Work Specialisation

Answer 313

• How work is divided into different tasks (division of labour), • Jobs can vary in how specialised they are depending on o Degree of knowledge/skills o How many tasks are included • Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy o A model for turning employees with no more than average abilities into rational decision makers serving the clients and constituencies of a bureaucracy with impartiality and efficiency o He suggests the following:  A fixed division of labor  Clearly defined hierarchies  Promotions based on competence but judged by seniors of the organization  Remuneration with fixed salaries  Official work is different than admin work  A set of rules governing the performance • Adam Smith’s Pin Factory had 18 jobs to make a pin and saw a 240% increase in productivity o Marxist Critique  Alienation- workers doing repetitive work get bored and leads to alienation o Taylorism  Job simplification  Leads to loss of control, repetition, meaningless and monotonous work, high job dissatisfaction, no opportunity to learn new skills

Question 314

Explain Departmentalisation

Answer 314

• Grouping jobs to coordinate work by: o Function (finance, research, development areas) o Products/Services (RioTinto – Aluminium, copper and diamonds and energy) o Geography/Territory (Most multinational companies) o Process (Oil Industry – Drilling, mining, refining) o Customer/Market (Microsoft – Corporate/Individual customers) o Matrix structure (Division by function and product) o Virtual Organisation (outsourcing- UBER)

Question 315

Explain Chain of Command

Answer 315

• Line of authority that runs through the structure. o Who do I talk to about X? o Who should I listen to? o Who is allowed to give me orders? • Can be rigid or fluid • Military Hierarchy o Orders are formulated at the top and passed down (authority) o No provisions for coordination or communication between units (only between commanding officers)

Question 316

Explain Span of Control

Answer 316

• Number of subordinates a manager directs. • Appropriate based on o Type of work subordinates do (e.g., complexity) o Subordinate knowledge/expertise o How much guidance subordinates need • Consider: Costs, need for control/autonomy, workload for managers

Question 317

Explain Centralisation

Answer 317

* Degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organisation * Centralised: Executive level * Decentralised: Lower level managers, even subordinates in some cases * Advantages: Avoid bad choices and non-standard actions from employees * Disadvantages: Lack of autonomy is demotivating, less adaptive to changes

Question 318

Explain Formalisation

Answer 318

• Degree to which jobs are standardised o Strict rules and procedures, no discretion • Advantages: When risks are high, requires less management (bureaucratic) • Disadvantages: Less autonomy means less motivation, rigidity, low innovation, low adaptation.

Question 319

Explain Extreme Structures

Answer 319

``` • Mechanistic Structure o Specialised work o Rigid departmentalisation o Strict chain of command o Narrow span of control? o Centralised decision making o Formalised ``` ``` • Flat/Organic Structure o Cross-functional work (often in teams) o Fluid chain of command for information flow o Wide span of control? o Decentralised decision making o Low formalisation ```

Question 320

Explain downsizing

Answer 320

``` • Systematic effort to make an organisation leaner o Close location o Reduce staff o Sell business units • Advantages: o Sometimes needed for survival o Reduction wage costs & other expenses • Disadvantages: o Lower commitment o Increased stress & absenteeism o Increased voluntary turnover ```

Question 321

What are the factors to consider when choosing a structure?

Answer 321

• Strategy o Innovating or Following? o Minimising costs? • Organisation Size o Bigger means more specialisation o Departmentalisation, and formalisation. • Technology o Routines created by technology can affect how work is divided and coordinated, need for management, rules, etc. • Environment o Suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulations, access to resources, ...