Organisational psyc Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 need theories?
A
- Maslow’s heirarchy of needs
- Alderfer’s ERG theory
- Mclelland’s theory of achiviement
2
Q
What is Maslow’s heirarchy of needs?
A
- Proposed that basic human needs need to be satisfied before we can begin to satisfy higher needs.
- Arranged in a heirarchy approach
- A person has to fulfill each level moving to the next.
3
Q
What are the levels in Maslow’s theory?
A
- Biological and physiological needs - Basic survical needs
- Safety needs - Safety and security
- Love and belonginess - Need for relationships
- Esteem needs - Achievements. Different for all
- Cognitive needs - Need for knowledge
- Aesthetic needs - Need and appreciation of beauty
- Self actualisation - Reaching full potential
- Transcendence - helping others do the same
4
Q
What is Alderfer’s ERG theory?
A
- A revision of Maslow’s and simplifies the 8 levels into 3.
- Not a heirarchy approach and says that people can have needs from more than one level at the same time.
- The relative importance of each level may change throughout our lives
5
Q
What are the 3 stages of ERG theory?
A
- Exsistence needs - Physiological and safety needs
- Relatedness - Social and external element of esteem needs
- Growth - Self development and advancement. Internal element of esteem needs. Leads to self actualisation
6
Q
What is McClelland’s thoery of achievement?
A
- Proposes that there are different needs that motivate people and these are measureable.
- Commonly used in organisations cause they are measureable qualities in people.
- Need for acheivement can be measured with the use of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
7
Q
What are the 3 catergories in McClelland’s theory?
A
- Need for achievement - to get things done
- Need for affiliation - to be liked by others
- Need for power - to have influence and control over others
8
Q
Evaluate need theories
A
- Dont know if in a heirarchy or not
- Subjective - self actualisation
- Application to real life
9
Q
What are projective tests?
A
A personality test using ambigous stimuli such as ink blots or the TAT. The responses are thought to reveal hidden emotions the individual projects on to the image.
10
Q
Evalute projective tests.
A
- Can get insight to diagnose
- Subjective to interpret
- Validity and reliability low due to subjectivity
11
Q
What are the 3 cognitive theories?
A
- Goal setting theory
- Expectenacy theory
- Equity theory
12
Q
What is the goal setting theory?
A
- Based on what Ryan said that huamn behaviour is affected by concious plans and intensions
- Locke and Lantham said that goal setting was a key motivator to work harder
- Specific goals produce higher levels of performance than vague ones
13
Q
What are the key features of goal setting?
A
- Clarity - Specific and measurable goals
- Challenge- Relevent goals linked to rewards
- Complexity - Realistic timelines
- Commitment - Understood and accepted the task
- Feedback - to improve. Must be positive and constructive. workers must give feedback on task progress as well.
14
Q
What are SMART targets?
A
- Developed from the 4c F model
1. Specific
2. Measurable
3. Attainable
4. Relevant
5. Timeline
15
Q
What is backward goal setting?
A
Individuals are encouraged to work backwards from the end goals to find the most appropriate way to reach it
16
Q
What is Expectancy theory?
A
- Vroom says that potential costs and rewards highly influence people’s decision making process.
- Expectancy theory state that a worker’s motivation is a result of how much they want the reward, assessment of the likelihood that putting in the effort gives an expected performance and their belief that the performance will lead to rewards.
17
Q
What is expectancy, valence and instrumentality?
A
- Expectancy - worker’s ability and skillset and their confidence in themselves
- Valence - How much they want the reward and size of reward
- Instrumentality - their belief that they will recieve it
18
Q
What is Social Exchange theory?
A
- Social Exchange theory suggest that people weigh the costs and benefits of n action.
- Equity theory based on this
19
Q
What is underpayment?
A
- Underpayment is when someone in the same post as you is paid more.
- Increased work outcomes; increased salary
- Decreased input
- Solutions are compare with someone else or leave the job
20
Q
What is equity theory?
A
- Worker’s expect things to be fair. They expect pay, status and recognition to equate to their effort
- The significant factor in this is comparison with others.
- If we percieve others are treated better than us we lose motivation.
- Two types of inequality; underpayment and overpayment
- Input and putput maybe percieved
21
A
- Overpayment is wen they feel they are overpaid
- Increased input to be fair
22
Q
What is Martin and petersons study?
A
- New workers were taken at a lower pay scale than exsisting workers. They experineced underpayment however old workers did not experience overpayment as they didnot compare themselves to the new ones.
23
Q
Evaluate cognitive theories.
A
- All talk about perception rather than the actual situation so supports individual side.
- Applicability to real life
- Equity theory supported by martin and peterson’s study
- Info here mainly theoritical but has high ecological validity but less generlisability and less control
24
Q
What are the 3 motivators at work?
A
- Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
- Reward systems
- Non mentary reward systems
25
What is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
* Intrinsic is internal
* Extrinsic is external
* Intrinsic more powerful
26
What are reward systems?
* Includes performance related pay, bonuses and profit sharing
* Hard to say which is better
* De waal and jansen found
Yao found giving bonuses to chinese companies increased motivation by 50%
Blefield and Marsen found positive effects from performnace related pay
Hollowell found that companies that paid senior executive on performace have maintained strong stock presences
* They also included contridactory evidence
Bloom found places with very high inequalities experience very high turnover in staff. In baseball teams with high paying players have the most losses.
Hollond found no relationship between bonus size and performance.
26
What are non monetary reward systems?
* Include praise, respect, recognition and a sense of belongingness.
* Not promised at the start unlike monetray rewards.
* Given for individual's achievement or contribution.
* Hansen says sould never promise it for every achievement under the fire.
* More motivating than others.
* Rose estimates around 75% UK organisations perform them
27
Motivators at work application to real life.
* You can evaluate what motivates you and decide on what job to choose
* Companies can use this information to find what motivates workers. If monetary rewards arent possible, they can recognise that non monetary have a similar effect
27
Behaviourist Vs Cognitive approach of motivators at work
* Section takes a behaviourist side as we consider the effects of reinforment on behaviour rather than the cognitive side
27
What are the advantages of non monetary rewards?
* The schema highlights desired behaviour.
* Role models to others
* Reduce staff turnover
Evidence:
* Brown & Armstrong found that people feeling appreciated increases job satisfaction and makes them stay
* Reed found that recognition as the most important factor in achieveing job satisfaction whereas salary is the 6th
27
Individual Vs Situational debate on motivators at work
* The situational factors are highly likely to determine which are the most effective motivators. For example, a person in a creative exnvironment would benefit from recognition while a person in finance would benefit from bonuses or profit sharing
* However, individual differences may effect as what motivates one person doesnt motivate the other
28
What are the traditional and modern theories of leadership?
1. Universalist and behaviourist theories
2. Adaptive leadership
3. 3P Model
29
What are the universalist of leadership?
* Universalist theory looks at personal qualities shared by great leaders
* The 'Great Person Theory' suggests that leaders are born and not made. They look at similiar qualities shared by them with most being charism and interpersonal skills to lead others
30
What are the behaviourist theories of leadership?
* Behaviourist theories looks at specific behaviours shared by leaders rather than their personal qualities
* Stogdill and Coons from Ohio state university found 2 distinct categories;
1. Initiating structure
2. Consideration
* They also found 2 main behaviours ;
1. Task oriented behaviours
2. People oriented behaviours
31
Initiating structure Vs Consideration
* Initiating structure includes allocating tasks, creating groups and defining their goals, setting deadlines and making sure they are met.
* Consideration includes expressing concern towards workers and building rapport with them. They will show trust and respect. Will improve performance by boosting confidence
31
Task oriented Vs people oriented behaviours?
* Task oriented - Behaviours focused on tasks. Initiate structure, set goals and supervise
* People oriented - Cares for the wellbeing of the workforce. Take time to examine the interpersonal relationships between the workers and the managers
32
What is adaptive leadership theory?
* As organisations grow large and complex, traditional methods may fail.
* Conceptualized by Heifitz
* Adaptive leadership involves mobilising people to tackle tough issues, adapt and thrive
33
What does adaptive leadership involves?
* Helping others find their inner authority
* Challenges traditional norms and explore new ways
* Employs new solutions that have not been tested and expands skills
* Useful at times of uncertainty
34
What does traditional leadership involves?
* Directing others and maintaining traditional norms
* Make use to skills available employs tested solutions
* Useful at times of certainty
35
What are the 6 principles of adaptive leadership?
1. Take a step back and look at the bigger picture
2. Identify the challenge and the nature of change
3. Regulate distress. Must present as confident
4. Open to contrasting views
5. Allow workers to use their knowledge from their experineces
6. Protect the voices of people below.
As an example used Henry Fonda from 12 angry men
36
What are the 3 Ps of leadership?
Jamie Scouller - Public, private and personal leadership
37
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What is public and private leadership?
* Public - leadership behaviour influence on a group of people
* Private - leadership behaviour influence on individuals
38
What is personal leadership?
* Includes the leader's skills, beliefs, emotions and 'leadership presence' and subconcious mind.
* Scouller says that it is the most as its effects ripples to the outer layers.
39
What is the Nature vs Nuture debate in regards to leadership theories?
* The Great Person theory supports nature side
* However, Scouller and Heifietz support nuture as they talk about behaviours
40
Individuals Vs situational explanation of leadership theories?
* Both Scouller and Heifitz talk about the situations
* Individual factors may affect based on the skills of the leader
40
Application of leadership theories o real life?
* Proven successful
* Results from Oho state university and university of Michigan had drawn conflusions from huge amonths of data so valid
41
What are the leadership styles?
1. Leadership effectiveness
2. The situational theory of leadership
3. Style of leader behaviour
42
What is the LPC scale?
* Used to measure leadership effectiveness
* LPC is a refelction of the test taker rather than the least preffered coworker since for everyone LPC equally unpleasant.
* Its a 16 item questionnaire
* Low LPC means task oriented
* High means relationship oriented
42
What is leadership effectiveness?
* Propsoed by Fielder which focuses on the style of leadership and the situation.
* Different styles are effective for different situations and organisations due to the type of organisation, type of power and the level of power they hold.
43
What is the situational theory of leadership?
* Hersey and Blanchard prosposed that there is no single eladership style that is effective and it actually depends on the situation
* 2 factors to consider are the leadership style and the maturity level of the group
* An effective leader would be relevant to the task and tiailor their style to match the marity of the group
44
What is maturity?
Capacity to set high and attainable goals as well as take responsbility for it
45
What are the 4 types of leader behaviour in the situational theory of leadership?
1. Directing - Highly directive, low participation
2. Coaching - Highly directive and highly participative
3. Supporting - Low directive and highly participative
4. Delegating- Low directive and low participative
46
What are the levels of maturity in the situational theory of leadership?
1. M1- less skills, cant take responsibility
2. M2- less skills but willing to do the task
3. M3- have the skills but no responsibility
4. M4- experineced enough to have skills and take responsibility
47
What is the style of leadership theory?
* Proposed by Muczyk and Reimann suggest that democratic leadership is not always effective because followers need to be willing and able to participate.
* They say that dircetion is need for a successful leadership and that there is not enough research as direction is considered anti demoractic.
* They combines participation and direction to create new leadership styles.
* Said that participation in decision making and direction in implementing
47
What are the 2 factors of leadership according to Muczyk and Reimann?
1. Participation
* Low - autocratic
* High - democratic
2. Direction
* Low - General supervision
* High - Close supervision
48
Autocratic Vs Democratic?
* Autocratic assumes their role is to make decisions
* Democratic ensures subordinates participate in the decision making process
48
Non directional Vs Directional leader?
* Non directional leaves the group to find ways to reach the goal and helps only if needed
* Directional assigns tasks and supervise to make sue they follow through
48
Individual Vs Situational debate of leadership styles?
* Feilder says that based on situation suit your style
* Hersey and Blanchard says that based on maturity level
49
Evaluate of leadership styles.
* LPC is easy to give and objective analysis
* But doesnt tell much about the style of leadership and might be affected by social desirability bias
* Difficult to construct unbias task
49
Application of leadership style to real life?
Help figure out which person is best suited
50
What are the theories under leaders and followers?
1. Leader-member exchange model
2. Followership
3. Measuring Leadership
51
What is the leader-member exhange group?
* Danseru et a originally proposed Vertical Dyad Linkage theory which states that leaders treat some workers as trusted followers and others in a more formal way.
* Relationship between leader and follower develops in 3 stages; role taking, role making and role routinasation.
* Erdogan et al found that people in the out group try to be close with people from the ingroup inorder to be in it.
* Danseru et al's individualised model focuses on one to one relationship between the leader and the subordinates. Their investments and returns
51
Describe role taking, role making and role routinisation.
1. Role taking - leaders and followers identify themselves in their roles
2. Role making - Members begin their work and leader determines whose in the in group and out group
3. Role routinisation - In group people and leader have equality interactions and strengthen relationship
51
What are the 4 main qualities of effective followers?
1. Competence - Have the skills to do the tasks
2. Commitment - Commited to the group's goal
3. Courage - Hold their beliefs and ethics
4. Self management -The ability to think critically and work independantly
51
What are the 2 main features found by kelly that differentiates followers from non followers?
1. Whether they are active or passive
2. Whether they think critically or not
51
What is followership?
A role in which an individual actively follows a leader
52
What are the 5 types of followers accroding to kelly?
1. The sheep - lack of commitment,requires external motivation, constant supervision
2. The yes people - always says yes to leader. Defends leader
3. The pragnamatics - Only says yes when majority has agreed. often remain in the beackground
4. The alienated - Negative constantly questioning leader and belives they are right for the job
5. The star followers - independent, positive and active. can work without leader.
53
What is measuring leadership?
* Kouzes and Posner invented the Leadership Practices inventory (LPI) to measure the extent to which an individual engages in each of the 5 leadership practices.
* The LPI gave 6 behavioural statements for each
* LPI consists of self ratings of the frequency with which they demonstrate these behaviours and a number of observer ratings.
54
What are the 5 leadership practices proposed by Kouzes and Posner?
1. Model the way - Set a personal example of what they expect from others.
2. Inspire a shared vision- Describe a compelling image of what the future could be
3. Challenge the process - experiment and take risks even when there is a chance of failure
4. Enable others to act - support the decisions that others make on their own
5. Encourage the heart - Praise
55
What were the conclusions made by Kouzes and Posner?
* Strongly believe that leadership is learned than an in born trait
* LPI paints a picture of the person's behaviour
* can be used to identify areas of developement
56
Nature Vs Nuture debate in leader and followers theories
* Kouzes says its learned (nuture). By looking at different characteristics of people can suggest differen ways to be successful
57
Individual Vs situational debate in leader follower theories?
Should be possible to make successful leaders based on the group they are in
58
What is the decision making process theory?
* Wedley and Field described the pre planning stage before making a decision and the decisions needed to be made before. Managers must enourage these.
* A few decisions that needs to be made before are ; What type of leader, How to gather info and Which people to use.
* Identified the stages of rational problem solving decision making but these dont apply to all situations
58
What are the 3 decision making theories?
1. The Decision making process
2. Groupthink
3. Cognitive limitations and errors
58
What is Decision Support System?(DSS)
* A computer based system that supports decision making activities
59
What are the stages of rational problem solving decision making identified by Wedley and Field
1. Identify the problem
2. Formulate objectives
3. Familiarize yourself with the problem
4. Generate alternate solutions
5. Evaluate alternate solutions
6. Choose the best one
7. Implement it
8. Follow up and evaluate results
60
What are the 8 symptoms of groupthink?
1. The illusion of invunarability - Believe they can do no wrong
2. Unquestioned morals - Lack of questioning of morals
3. Rationalising - Ignore warning signs and think everything is alright
4. Stereo typing - out group if questioning
5. Self cencorship - Ignore own doubts since others dont seem to have the same problems
6. Mind guards - Hide important info and pretend to not be worried
7. Illusion of unanimity - Behave to project this
8. Direct pressure to conform - Thinking they may seem disloyal for questioning
60
What is groupthink?
* It is a psychological phenomenon, when people prioritise group loyalty over making the best decisions. They may conform to form an unanimous decision. Can result in ethically dubious decisions being made.
* Janis identified 8 'symptoms' of groupthink
* It can cause poor and unehtical decisions being however there are advantages like tasks getting done quickly and thoroughly.
61
What are the cognitive limitations and errors for decision making?
* Forsyth suggests 3 potential biases that may affect group decision making
1. Sin of Commission - Misuse of data that has been proven to be false
2. Sin of omission - Overlooking relevent information
3. Sin of impercision - using heuristics. Only easily available data
61
What causes groupthink?
1. Members are alike
2. Leader is highly charismatic
3. Members are morally challenged
62
How to reduce groupthink?
* Members should be given the opportunity to express their views
* Leader must not place their views too forcefully
* Having a 'devil's advocate'
63
What are the 3 theories under group conflict?
1. Levels and causes of group conflict
2. Positive and negative effects of group conflict
3. Managing group conflict
63
Evaluate the decision making theories
* Wedley and Field indentify strategies to ensure poor decisions aren't made
* Janis found ways to reduce groupthink
* Forsyth looked into errors and companies can use this to reduce its effects
63
What are the levels and causes of group conflict?
* The 3 types of group conflict
1. Intra group conflict - When people within a group are in conflict
2. Inter group conflict - conflict between two groups within an organisation
3. Inter individual conflict - between 2 or more people in a group
* Riggio suggested 2 causes of conflict
1. Interpersonal factors - over unrelated matters. personality clashes
2. Organisational factors - conflict over work related matter. status, salary.
63
What are the positive effects of conflict?
* Pruitt and Rubin
1. Conflict resolution may strength group unity and commitment to organisation and goals
2. Avoids groupthink and may create more creative and innovative ideas
3. Healthy competition
64
What are the negative effects of conflict?
1. Can distract workers from their job, wasting money resources and time
2. Can cause physiological and psychological harm to people involved resulting in absenteesim and increased staff turnover
3. Bullying or harassment made public may cause deterimental effects on company's reputation
65
How to manage group conflicts?
* Thomas suggested 5 strategies to manage conflict
1. Competition - conflict over when one loses and the other wins
2. Accomadation - one side make a sacrifice to end conflict
3. Compromise - Each group equally compramise something
4. Colloboration -The group works together to overcome conflict
5. Avoidance - Avoid conflict for awhile as a cooling off period
Creating a subordinate goal to make them work together and divert from conflict
66
Issues and debates of group conflicts?
* Riggio proposed that conflicts may have individual or situational factors. Situational could be due to work factors. Problem can be solved if identified
* Pruitt and Rubin shows that positive effcts there from conflict
* Thomas helps manage it.
67
What is hawthorne effect?
The phenomenon in which people change their behaviourbeacuse they are being investigated notdue to the varriable that is being manupilated.
68
What was Wickstorm &Bendix take on the Hawthorne studies?
* They challenge the original studies conlusions by argueing that they envolved a mere suggestion into a conclusion without ay concrete evidence.
* They said that Hawthorne effect should not be considered as it adds more confusion than clarity
68
Grenwood study on Hawthorne studies?
* 50 years after the original study, greenwood interviewed the women and found that they only worked hard beacuse they didnt want to go back to the main factory since the supervision was harsh there.
68
What were the original hawthorne studies?
* In 1924, at Hawthorne works, electri plant, in chicago, study took placefor 5 years to test the effects of lighting on productivity. They were paidfor individual or group production and changed rest times.
* 2 experimental groups with 5 women and control group were from main factory
* Found that there was no effect on it and only when the light was as bright as the moonlight did the experimental group decrease productivity.
* Concluded that their increase in productivity was due to the fact that they were being closely supervised than the rest.
69
What is bullying according to Einarsen?
* Hostile and aggressive behaviour, either physical or not, directed at one or more collegues or subordinates.
* It causes humiliation, offence and distress effecting work performance creating a negative working environment.
* Zapf's identified 5 types of bullying behaviour
* Key factor is power and mangers and supervisors are consdiered bullys. Being bullied by a superior is more distressing than a co worker.
* 4 stages of bullying.
* 2 causes of bullying
* Finally concluded that its not one phenomenon and there are different types
70
What are the 5 types of bullying behaviour?
1. Social isolation
2. Work related bullying
3. Physical violence
4. Verbal threats
5. Personal attacks
71
What are the 4 stages on bullying?
1. Agressive behaviour
2. Bullying
3. Stigmatising
4. Severe trauma
72
What ae the 2 causes on bullying?
1. Personality factors of the victim and bully
2. Situational factors
* Bjorkqvist did a study in a finnish university and found three reasons; competition concerning job status, envy or the bully uncertain of their own abilities.
* Studies have found that victims are sensitive, angry, suspicious and tend to have low self esteem and anxious in social settings
* Situational factors include ;
1. Deficiences in work design
2. Deficiences in leadership behaviour
3. Socially exposed position of the victim
4. Low morale of the department
73
What are the 2 types of bullies?
1. Predetor bullying is when the victim has done nothing to trigger the bully but accidentally in the situation where the bully is showing power
2. Scapegoating is when they are frustrated and wants to vent it on someone.
73
Study on open plan offices.
* Oldham and Brass conducted a field experiment on a large newspaper company in USA. The layout of the office from 'multi-cellular' to open plan offices were made during a move.
* 128 participants , staff in pressroom were control group. parts were informed and most agreed the change was needed. The layout only changed.
* Data was collected 8 weeks before, 9 weeks after and 18 weeks after. Questionnaires were given measuring work satisfaction, interpersonal satisfaction, internal work motivation
* Predicted that there will be incraese in feeback, friendships and inter departmental and intra departmental interactions
* However found that motivayion and satisafction decreased. Control no change. difficult to build friendships, difficult to give feedback, felt like ina fishbowl
74
What is temporal conditions?
Refer to time conditions under which people work
75
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Shiftwork?
* Pheasan identifies 2 main approaches
1. Rapid rotation theory
2. Slow rotation theory
76
What is rapid rotation theory?
* Frequent changes that workers have to follow. There are 2 types;
1. Metropolitan rota - 2 day, 2 afternoon, 2 night then 2 days off and the cycle begins. Thats 8 days per week so the weekly pattern shifts
2. Continental rota - 2 day, 2 afternoon, 3 nights then 2 days off. 2 day, 3 afternoon, 2 nights and then 3 days off. Then they cycle repeats
77
What are the effects of shiftwork on health?
* Knutsson reviewed this
* No specific evidence on shiftwork and longevity
* 2 studies showed directly compared mortality rate between day and shidt workers
* Danish study reported a tiny relative increase in death for shift workers
1. Gastrointestinal disease - more common in shift workers and includes constipation, diarrhoea, peptic ulcers and duodenal ulcers.
2. Cardiovascular disease - working conditions contribute including physical factors. studies support relation between shiftwork and disease
3. Cancer - incraesed risk of breast cancer in shift work (could be due to exposed carcinogens). no conclusive evidence
4. Diabetes - increased chance for shift workers. certain substances high during night work so metabolic disturbances
5. Pregnancy - miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight. strong evidence
6. Excarbation of exsisting disorders - circadian rhythm interupted. sleep depriviation
77
What is slow rotation shift?
* Changes infrequently
* allows circadian rhythm to adapt to one shift without rapidly changing it causing health problems
78
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Shift work and accidents?
* Gold et al conducted a survey on nurses. Used a self administrated questionnaire handed out to 878 registered nurses from june to september 1986. 687 returned it.
* They were asked whether they worked variable shifts or the same shift. Information was given relating to the current week, previous 2 weeks and following week on no of day, evening and night shifts worked. Were asked to record sleep and wake times
* They were divided into 2 group; day and evening in one and night and rotas in one.
79
What did Gold's questionnaire have?
1. Quality of sleep
2. Use of alcohol
3. Presciption drugs
4. sleeping aids
5. Times they nodded off during work
6. noddd off while driving back and forth
7. accidents , errors and near miss accidnets durig the past year
80
What is anchor sleep?
4 or more hours of sleep during the same clock hours every night
81
What were the results from gold's study?
* 92% day workers obtained anchor sleep while only 6.2% and 0% rotas
* Anchor sleep distruption experineced by 49% day, 94% rotas and 2.9% night
* night 1.8 times liekly to report poor sleep than day and rota 2.8 than day
* Night and rota more likely to use sleeping aids
* Nodding off atleast once a week 35% rotas, 32% night and 20% day who worked some nights as opposed to only 2.7 % and 2.8% rotas during day shifts
* 3.9 rotas and 3.6 night were likely to nod off while driving
* With all factors considered rotas still twie more likely to cause accidnets
* results are consistent with lab demonstrations effect of sleep depriviation and distrubances of circardian rhythm
82
Accidents at work: errors and accidents inoperator machine systems ?
* Technology developed to hve machines do the work while humans become operators. Systems are complex and so human error can be catastrophic (Nagel)
* Famous case was at The Three mile power plant in USA where a worker shut down an alternative feedwater pipe and failed to turn it back on before he left. Reactor overheated causing a warning alarm. Took 2hrs and 18 mins to figure out what was wrong.
* Cannot blame the worker beacuse there were design failures. Didnot indicate where the problem, no colour coordination, a relive value also failed but again no warning for it. They had to check 1600 gauges to find problem.
83
What was the study done by Fox et al?
* Use of token economy to reward workers for no injuries for a specific amount of time
* Conducted at 2 open mine pits and their associated product processing plants in USA. Prior to study first mine had 8 times more injuries than average and 2nd one had 3 times more. in the 5 years, 2 deaths and 1 permanent disability.
* Same mining procedures and same sizes. Ijuries had happened in all areas particularly associated with use and maintainance of heavy equipment
* 4 groups made based on the no of days lost due to injury
* 1st mine started in 1972 and 2nd in 1975. were given specified no of trading stamps with their pay. The amount of stamps varied of each group
* Six weeks before, they were told and one month before, workers who didnot have injuries got 1000 stamps.
* Stamps could be spent at local stores with no restrictions
84
What were the 4 groups in Fox et al's study?
1. Group 1 - least risk of injury. office workers
2. Group 2 - more risk than 1. shift supervisors, technicians
3. Group 3 - more than 2. mehcanics and truck operators
4. Group 4 - most hazerdous. electricians and lube workers
85
How were the stamps allocated in Fox et al's study?
* 1 got 300, 2 got 400, 3 got 500 and 4 got 700.
* Additionally, one group with common supervisor got more stamps.
* If one attempt to prevent injury 500 to 25 000 stamps were given
* If one or 2 days missed, no stamps for a month, if 3 or 4 no for 2 month, if 5 or 6 no for 3 months goes on until if more than 10 no for 6 months
* Same amount of time no group members would recieve
* For equipment damage, every $2000 no per month. Failing to rsuly injury no stamps for person and group
86
Results from Fox et al's study?
* Significant decrease in both mines
* Cost of accidents and injurys down from baseline of $294 000 to $29 000
* No permanent injries amd death
* Although no direct evidence, anecdotal evidence sho appreciation for it
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Safety promotion campaignes?
* Chip-pan fires major problem at the time in UK. Cowpe considered two strategies; prevention and containment.
* Prevention was disregarded since its always accidents and ppl wuldnt care. Containment was fine but then realised that showing a persona tackling fire would raise concerns about the viewer's abilities.
* They mixed the two and made 2 60 second advertisements with the first part about cause and 2nd about containment.
* They were shown on 10 regional tv in UK from 1976 to 1984
* Effectiveness was measured through the use of fire brigade stats
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What were the results from Cowpe's study?
1. Fires reduced by 12%.
2. Reported high levels of awareness and recall of advertisements were there even after they stopped airing
Concluded it was successful.
Donot know if prevention part or containment part helped
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What is the two factor theory of job satisfaction?
* Proposed by Frederick Herzberg states that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction work independently of each other.
* Workers are satisfied by just having their basic needs met. They look for gratification of higher levels needs.
* Conducted over 200 interviews with engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh cause they the time they were thriving.
* Asked them when they were 'exceedingly happy' and 'exceedingly unhappy' in their jobs. Were asked to give as much info as possible
* He found that increasing satisfaction doesnot mean decreasing dissatisfaction.
* The theory distinguishes 2 factors; motivators and hygiene factors
* These create 4 combinations
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What is job characteristics theory?
* Hackman and Oldham proposed this to create jobs that appeal to workers and motivate them
5 key factors
1. Skill vareity - should require the use of different skills
2. Task identity - must be a whole piece of work and not a disjoint element
3. Task significance - must have effect on others in or out of company
4. Autonomy - must provide autonomy in planning, scheduling and carrying it out
5. Feedback - Job itslef procide insight on the worker's performance
These provide 3 psychological states which results in 3 outcomes; motivation,atisfaction and perfromnace
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4 combination in two factor theory?
1. High hygiene + high motivation - ideal. highly motivated with few complaints
2. HH + LM - few complaints but no motivation
3. LH + HM - motivated by complaints
4. LH +LM - worst condition
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What is job descreptive index?
* Most common way to measure job satisfaction proposed by Smith et al. Have 5 aspects
* Very simple scale with 'yes','no' or 'cant decide' in response to a series of statements
* Results are compared with standardised norms based on data collected from a large sample regularly updated
Advantage are
* Measures specific objective areas of job satisfaction
* Relatively easy to read and no complex language
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Motivators Vs hygiene factors?
* Motivators - factors providing satisfaction like responsibility, recognition and a sense of doing good
* Hygiene factors cause dissatisfaction in their absence. Salary, working conditions and insurance
Both need to be addressed
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What are techniques of job design? (Arnold)
* Three further techniques to use once the job has started to increase satisfaction and motivation
1. Job enrichment - Giving a greater vareity to work on increasing skills and responsibility. gives a sense of control over their jobs and makes it intresting
2. Job rotation - Have regular changes of task at their normal role. Helps prevent boredom and increase skills
3. Job enlargement- can be vertical or horizontal. Horizontal means more tasks at the same level increasing variety. Vertical means giving more complex ones increasing competence and empowerment.
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5 aspects of jop descriptive index?
1. Experinece of work
2. Salary
3. Promotion prospects
4. Experience of supervision
5. Experinece of co workers
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The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire?
* Designed by Weiss et al to measure employee's satisfaction with work
* There is a 100 item long version and a 20 item short version
* Measures ascpects like company policies, security, responsibility
* originally 5 reposnse choices were ; very satisfied, satisfied, n , dissatisfied, very dissatisfied
* Since results tend to be skewed and altered between satisfied and very satisfied a later version developed
* Responses: not satisfied, somewhat satisfied, satisfied, very satisfied, extremely satisfied
* good spread around central point
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What is quality of working life?
Heskett, Sesser and Schlesinger descirbe it as feelings employees have towards their jobs, collegues and companies and they affect the company's growth and profitability
Walton proposed a typology to assess QWL and it consist of 8 components
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What are the 8 components to assess QWL proposed by Walton?
1. Fair and adequte payment -whether pay is enough, equal to others or they are satisfied
2. Safety and health conditions - Health and safety issues
3. Provide opportunity to develop skils- will rate high QWL if they are given autonomy and independence to do theri job and sharpen skills
4. Opportunity for career growth and security - moving from above, they career growth and job security
5. Positive social relationships - decrease distress, absenteesim and raise productivity and satisfaction
6. The total life space - work ife balance
7. Constitutionalism - appropriate policies
8. Social relevance - high QWL is if positive social relevence
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What is workplace sabotage?
* Behaviours that are designed to deliberately break rules and stop work from taking place. A result of dissatisfaction and powerlessness
* Study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld on 38 unionised workers at an electrical factory. Aquestionnaire constructed by an ex-employee with ways that were used to sabotage the company. Produced 29 methods. 4 general categories. a futher list made with reasons
* Each part was given and asked to rate each on a scale of 1 to 7
* A median spilt on reasons to form 2 groups ; high reason acceptors, low reason acceptors
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What are the results from Giacalone and Rosenfeld study?
* High reson acceptors rated more on work slowdowns, destruction of machinery and causing chaos (no monetary benefits) but not on dishonesty
* Concluded that acceptence seems to affect justification of sabotage in many forms, not in dishonesty.
* Probably cause its hurts self esteem
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What is absenteesim?
* Workplace stress is a major cause
* Can be voluntary or involuntary
* The paper by Blau and Boal uses job involvement and organisational commitment to predict turnover and absenteesim
* Creates 4 possible situations
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# 1.
Involuntary vs voluntary absenteesim?
* Involuntary where they have no choice but to not attend. Companies must ahev policies to address this
* Voluntary is they chose to not come possibily due to dissatisfaction but difficult to measure
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What is measuring organisational commitemnet?
* Organisational commitement is the attitude workers have towards the company.
* Some authors discuss 3 form: desire to reamain with the company, belief in and acceptence of company goals and willingness to put effort on behalf of company
* However other authors such as Allen and Meyer prospoded 3 types
* The study by Mowday attempts to meaure organisational commitment.
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4 possible situations proposed by Blau and Boal?
1. High job involvement and high organisational commitment - star workers. most valued, lowest level of turnover and absenteesim
2. HJ and Lo - lone wolves. do their job but no group involvement. would leave for better jobs.
3. LJ and Ho - less individual work but identifies with the organisation. More group work
4. LJ and Lo - least valued. 'apathetic employees'
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What are the 3 types of organisational commitements?
1. Continuance commitment - where they stay cause costs and risks of leaving are too great
2. Affective commitment - Where they are emotionally attatched to company and agrees with goals
3. Normative - They feel obligned to stay
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Describe Mowday's study
* 15 item quetionnaire called organisational commitement questionanaire
* Now understood that it is to measure affective commitement
* 2563 people did it from all kinds of backgrounds
* The study was done to check reliability and validity of the scale
* Mean score ranged from 4 to 6.1
* No item stood out producing odd results
* Test retest scores were good so high reliability
* Results compared with other scales measuring affective commitment. Correlation was high suggesting high validity
* Predictive validity checked to see if it could predict how long would stay. This supported as people rated low more likely to leave
* Problems were demand characteristics and othe factors may influnece
* Can use9 item one instead of 15 they say
