other reforms of Alexander II

Question 1

what changes were made with the local gov reform 1864?

Answer 1

• introduced a measure of self-government at provincial and district levels
• zemstva/ assemblies were to be elected by nobles, town dwellers and peasants. electoral system favoured nobility who made up 40% of the members of district zemstva and over 70% of provincial councils

Question 2

what were the successes of the local gov reform?

Answer 2

• had some democracy
• employed teachers, doctors, lawyers and agricultural expert - known as ‘third element’
• members developed self-esteem and political experience and began making demands for social reform and improvements in living conditions

Question 3

limitations of the local gov reform?

Answer 3

• ordinary people don’t have influence, electorate favoured nobles
• zemstva only introduced in a limited number of provinces - slow to get going so didn’t achieve much early on
• restrictions placed on their powers of taxation
• dominated by nobility - many didn’t take it seriously and used it to run affairs in their own interests
• peasants didn’t participate - put off by nobles

Question 4

overall judgement of local gov reform?

Answer 4

• overall, the zemstva designed to establish some participative self-government was whittled down in the interests of the landed nobility, whom were placed in charge of the zemstva in compensation of the emancipation of the serfs.

Question 5

what changes were made with judicial reforms 1864?

Answer 5

• the whole legal structure was reviewed, leading to the passing of reforms in 1864, which were then introduced during 1865
• judicial system was simplified with fewer courts
• system of JPs established - magistrates elected by the district council

Question 6

successes of judicial reforms?

Answer 6

• open to the public and proceedings were reported - democracy
• reforms challenged the political authority of the autocracy
• regime couldn’t act in the arbitrary way to which it was accustomed
• idea of rule of law introduced
• Russians could get fairer trial - greater access to justice
• less corruption - judges paid better so no bribes

Question 7

limitations of judicial reforms?

Answer 7

• separate courts for peasants where most judges were illiterate - separating lower class which made up most of population
• gov officials could not be tried
• bureaucracy did still intervene so trial by jury could not always be guaranteed

Question 8

overall judgement of judicial reforms?

Answer 8

• largely positive as it challenged the authority of the autocracy and began to introduce a more democratic structure as well as creating a group of people - lawyers to become more active in the reform movement, however still a clear hierarchy due to separated courts.

Question 9

what changes were made with military reforms 1861-81?

Answer 9

• universal conscription introduced undertaken by Dmitri Milyutin - all social classes were liable for military service at age of 21
• standard length of military service reduced to 15 years
• conditions improves
• officer training radically improved and military colleges were established

Question 10

successes of military reforms?

Answer 10

• modern rifles and artillery introduced - slow process
• from 1862 to 1870 reserve increased from 210,000 to over 550,000
• organised into 15 military districts with more autonomy given to district commanders - easier to bring in the reserve in time of war
• flogging abolished
• less brutal and class ridden

Question 11

limitations of military reforms?

Answer 11

• tendency to appoint untrained members of the royal family to key military services for which they were unsuited
• reforms opposed by nobility - didn’t want offspring mixing with lower classes
• army still relied mainly on peasant conscripts who were uneducated and illiterate - reduced effectiveness of their training

Question 12

overall judgement of military reforms?

Answer 12

• partly positive as conditions improved for soldiers and there was less brutality with improved training and smaller army meant there was saving in gov expenditure, however army still mostly peasants with little incentive to fight

Question 13

what changes were made with educational reforms 1863-4

Answer 13

• zemstva took over responsibility of running many schools from the church

Question 14

successes of educational reforms?

Answer 14

• more professional teachers so quality of teaching rose
• new primary schools were built. Between 1856 and 1878 the number of primary schools increased from 8000 to nearly 25000 with 1mil pupils in attendance
• from 1865 to 1899 students numbers grew from 4000 to 16000
• number of pupils roughly doubled

Question 15

limitations of educational reforms?

Answer 15

• women could attend courses but not take degrees
• many students relied on state financial help and were poor and undernourished
• study circles were formed discussing radical ideas and the injustices of the tsarist system - led to protests, arrests and disturbances

Question 16

overall judgement of educational reforms?

Answer 16

• only slightly positive as action was undertaken in improving the education system in building more schools and increasing the student count, however many students relied on financial help and formed radical ideologies due to education.

Question 17

what changes were made with censorship reform in the 1860s?

Answer 17

• the hitherto rigid system of censorship was relaxed - newspapers, periodicals and books no longer had to submit to prior censorship

Question 18

successes of censorship reform?

Answer 18

• newspapers could discuss government policy and editors were given more freedom
• huge growth in number of books and periodicals published
• growing literate readership

Question 19

limitations of censorship reform?

Answer 19

• ministry of interior could till withdraw any publication deemed as dangerous and fine or close down periodicals
• some journals were overtly radical and critical of the regime
• the ministry of the interior did close some down and punished delinquent editors

Question 20

overall judgement of censorship reform?

Answer 20

• partly positive as relaxation allowed for a rise in literate individuals due to more books and periodicals published, however any publication deemed as slightly ‘dangerous’ could still be withdraw, so revolutionary information was still restricted and limited.

Question 21

what happened as a result of the Polish Revolt in 1863?

Answer 21

• Alexander II put a lid on the malcontents and reined back in the earlier measures and bring in more reactionary policies
• he made conservative appointments such as Count Peter Shuvalov who headed up the Third Section and made changes like vetted appointments, tightened up censorship, tighter control of students, made use of military courts, increased use of rule by decree

Question 22

how did Minister of Education, Count Tolstoy backtrack on educational reforms?

Answer 22

• took greater control of primary schools, reducing the role of the 1864 school boards which were often dominated by liberal zemstvo representatives. Now ministry inspectors were responsible for appointing teachers and opening schools and kept an eye on the moral views conveyed by teachers
• entry to universities was restricted and favoured nobles
• crackdown in universities and disciplinary functions were transferred to the police. students associated with revolutionary activities or views were expelled

Question 23

why is it unfair to state that none of the reforms continued or had a lasting positive effect?

Answer 23

• because local government reforms were extended to towns and cities in 1870 and the military reforms continued
• the first women were admitted to Moscow University in 1872