overview of pet bird Flashcards
(270 cards)
1
Q
play a major role in pet bird wellness programs.
A
Nutrition and behavior
2
Q
what are those entails in Preventing disease
A
- providing a proper diet,
- an appropriate size cage and perches,
- proper sanitation, and
- environmental enrichment (ie, toys, foraging opportunities, social interaction).
3
Q
oxygen deprivation can occur during?
A
restraint, treatment, or diagnostic sampling.
4
Q
are more common in birds without recent exposure to potentially infectious birds
A
Chronic malnutrition and secondary infections
5
Q
is a major cause of subclinical disease in birds, which often becomes clinical when a secondary infection occurs.
A
Malnutrition
6
Q
a sign of increased respiratory effort in birds
A
the tail bobbing up and down
7
Q
The normal resting respiratory rate for pet birds
- in smaller birds (<300 g)
- larger birds (400–1,000 g)
A
- from 30−60 beats/min
* 15–30 beats/min
8
Q
Overgrown beak and nails can indicate
A
husbandry, nutrition, or liver disease.
9
Q
Excessive wear of the plantar surface of the feet can indicate
A
inadequate perching or poor nutrition.
Excessive wear or callous unilaterally may indicate a problem with the contralateral foot.
10
Q
in birds,Body condition can be determined by
A
palpating the pectoral muscles.
- keel scoring system
- Severely obese birds deposit fat over the neck, thighs, and abdominal cavity.
11
Q
a large parrot will have a heart rate of
A
> 250 beats/min when restrained.
12
Q
The basic types of wing trims are
A
1) Removing 4–7 of the distal primary flight feathers from both wings, below the level of the coverts
2. Leaving 1–4 distal primary feathers and removing the remainder of the primaries from both wings
3. ) Removing a variable number of primary feathers from just one wing.
13
Q
these are the excellent ways to remove excess keratin that can accumulate on the lateral surfaces of the beak.
A
!. Sanding tools
2. Concrete (cement) perches
14
Q
In previous decades,were used to identify the location of parrots at which they were quarantined.
A
open-rolled steel bands
*Now most birds areleg banded(using closed bands) as chicks for individual identification.
15
Q
these are rolled, steel quarantine bands are extremely strong and require removal by a full-size bolt cutter with sharp edges.
A
- open (gap present)
* closed aluminum bands placed on young, captive-raised birds must be stabilized to prevent twisting while being cut.
16
Q
is replacing or augmenting banding as a means of identification
A
Microchipping
- is in the left pectoral muscles
- it is riskier in smaller birds.
- has resulted in bleeding and death.
17
Q
in birds Blood is usually collected from?
A
- right jugular vein, which is larger than the left
- basilic (wing) vein - prone to hematoma
- medial metatarsal vein - medium to large psittacine birds, seabirds, and poultry
* Coating a syringe with an anticoagulant before collection may be helpful in smaller species
18
Q
Uric acid may be increased in
A
- severe renal disease or with articular gout.
2. Severe dehydration
19
Q
injections are used for fluid administration, some vaccinations, and many routine medications such as antibiotics.
*may be as effective as IM injections for most medications, without the associated muscle necrosis.
A
. SC injections
*Insulin syringes (50 U or 0.5 mL) with 27-gauge needles are invaluable for accurate dosing
20
Q
are often used in birds. To maximize their absorption and minimize discomfort
A
SC fluids - should be warmed to 102°–106°F
*Sites of administration are the lateral flank, the inguinal web, and the back.
21
Q
occasionally indicated in birds.
A
. IV injections
*administered IV are some antibiotics, amphotericin B, chemotherapeutic drugs, contrast media, and fluids
22
Q
IM injections are given into the
A
- pectoral muscles in most pet birds;
- leg muscles - raptors
- muscle fibers of birds are more vascular and tightly packed —->muscle necrosis and inadvertent IV injection
23
Q
Indwelling catheterscan be placed in the?
A
jugular, basilic, or medial metatarsal veins for constant-rate infusions or intermittent fluid administration.
24
Q
Intraosseous (IO) catheters can be inserted, generally in the
A
proximal tibiotarsal bone or distal ulna.
*hypodermic needle may be used (usually 25-gauge for initial entry, followed by a second 22-gauge needle sutured in place), or a spinal needle with stylet for large birds.
*Without a stylet or second needle, a bone plug may obstruct the needle.
*
25
catheters are often preferable for longterm fluid therapy
IO catheters
| *via IO catheters can be painful to the bird, especially after 1–2 days.
26
how many ml of fluids cn be admin in adult birds?
30 mL/kg can be administered tid-qid.
| *Baby birds will hold ~10% of their body weight per feeding (100 mL/kg).
27
is sometimes desirable for diagnostic or treatment procedures to reduce stress and minimize fear.
Sedation
28
is a safe and effective sedation protocol in most pet
Midazolam -at 0.5–1 mg/kg, IM, or 1–2 mg/kg intranasally (IN)
*flumazenil (0.02–0.1 mg/kg, IM or IN -reverse the effects.
29
this is given when birds is thought to be in pain or discomfort?
* butorphanol (0.5–3 mg/kg, IM or IN
| * may be given alone or with midazolam.
30
often require the higher dosage (2–3 mg/kg) of butorphanol
Amazon parrots
* raptors require the lower dosage (0.5 mg/kg).
* Isoflurane or sevoflurane anesthesia _by face mask can also be used alone or in conjunction with sedation
31
common in clinically ill birds.
Delayed crop emptying
*Endotracheal tubes should be uncuffed, because the absence of a tracheal ligament increases the risk of tracheal necrosis if a cuff is overinflated
32
fast birds how many hours before admin of anesthesia
of 4–6 hr are typical.
| *the crop should be palpated for the presence of food or fluid before anesthesia.
33
The normal body temperature of most psittacines is
103°–106°F (39°–41°C).
34
example of altricial, hatched birds?
* without feathers, with eyes closed, and helpless.
| * Parrots, doves, and finches
35
e.g of born precocial,with down feathers, open eyes, and the ability to walk and feed themselves at hatching.
Poultry, ratites, and waterfowl
36
are completely dependent on the parent birds for warmth and food; they also lack a functional immune system and are more susceptible to disease.
Psittacine neonates
37
Disadvantages of hand raising can include
*stunting and an increase in husbandry-related diseases such as crop stasis or aspiration pneumonia.
38
The health of a chick depends on what factors
the health of the parents, genetics, the incubation process, nutrition (type of food, temperature, and consistency), environment (humidity, warmth, and cleanliness), and exposure to infectious diseases.
39
temperature guidelines are for newly hatched psittacine chicks?
*92°–94°F; unfeathered chicks, 90°–92°F; pin-feathered chicks, 85°–90°F; and fully-feathered and weaned chicks, 75°–80°F.
40
should be fed to chicks >2 days old (more dilute formula for newly hatched), with the environmental temperature between 102°–106°F.
*A diet of 25%–30% solids
41
characteristics of Healthy chicks
* have yellowish pink skin, and feathers first appear on the head, wing, and tail.
* Abnormal feather growth or delayed or abnormal opening of eyes can be a sign of stunting.
42
a lucent areas across the vane of the feathers
| indicate a period of stress when that portion of the feather was forming
Stress bars
* common during weaning,
* A large number of stress bars may indicate an underlying illness or condition.
43
indication of hypovitaminosis A or chronic respiratory disease.
blunting of the choanal papilla
44
have a normally distended abdomen because of an enlarged proventriculus and ventriculus from being fed large amounts of formula.
Nestlings
45
Pediatric Diseases of Pet Birds
| most common causes of respiratory disease in hand-fed psittacine birds.
Aspiration Pneumonia
| *occurs as birds begin to wean.
46
clinical signs of aspiration pneumonia
increased respiration, respiratory distress, poor feeding response, and depression.
DX. based on history and physical examination findings.
*tx oxygen therapy, nebulization, antibiotics, antifungals, warmth, supplemental fluids, and anti-inflammatory drugs. Prognosis is guarded.
47
Bacterial Disease
| The normal gut microflora in chicks
gram-positive bacteria.
| *presence of large numbers of gram-negative bacteria or budding yeast indicates infection
48
Bacterial infections can occur from multiple sources: such as?
unsanitary environment, inappropriate storage of formula, and use of unclean feeding utensils.
49
CS for bacterial dse
*crop stasis, poor feeding response, regurgitation, depression, and dehydration.
*dx on clinical signs and results of a fecal or crop Gram stain, CBC (leukocytosis, monocytosis), and culture and sensitivity testing
*Tx is with antibiotics and supportive care
prophylactic treatment with an antifungal drug such as nystatin or fluconazole
50
can be present in low numbers in a healthy chick but may proliferate in the presence of antibiotic treatment
* most common fungal infection in young birds and can result in thickening of the crop mucosa,
* described as "Turkish towel in appearance."
Candida albicans
51
CS:of Candida albicans
crop stasis, poor feeding response, and depression.
* lesions or plaques in the oral cavity. Intestinal or gastric candidiasis can result in malabsorption.
* Dx is with fecal or crop cytology revealing large numbers of budding yeasts
52
The most common viral diseases in psittacine chicks are ?
polyoma virus,
avian bornavirus,
proventricular dilatation disease and circovirus, and
psittacine beak and feather disease
53
tx for foreignbody body
require an ingluviotomy to gain access to the mucosal surface and lumen of the crop, proventriculus, or ventriculus.
*Removal of a foreign body, such as a feeding tube, is the most common indication for this procedure in pediatric birds.
54
in this Mild cases may result in red and inflamed skin in the area of the crop.
*
Crop Burns
* Second- and third-degree burns will be acutely inflamed and blistered and may lead to tissue necrosis and fistula formation.
* In subacute cases -food draining from a fistula through the crop wall and skin
55
tx or Crop Burns
*Surgical repair debriding devitalized tissues, separating the crop wall from overlying skin, and closing the two layers separately
56
it - occurs from improper hand-feeding technique, either with the syringe tip or a rigid feeding tube.
Esophageal and Pharyngeal Trauma
| *leads to tissue trauma, cellulitis, and distribution of food into subcutaneous tissues.
57
t/f
| in neonates than in adult birds, so some degree of hepatomegaly is normal in chicks.
true
58
Characteristics of neonates with hepatic lipidosis
1. usually still being hand fed, often with a commercial formula to which the owners have added peanut butter, oil, or some other high-fat food, and
2) they are usually heavy for their age and exhibit severe respiratory distress.
59
best first step for hepatic lipidosis
Cool oxygenation
| *have virtually no air sac capacity
60
are the general nutritional changes required for hepatic lipidosis
* adding lactulose to the formula
* reducing the quantity of crop food per feeding,
* adjusting the content of the formula
* Parenteral fluid supplementation - hyperthermic bird hydrated
61
CS of Failure to Thrive
Stunted chicks are thin, and the head is disproportionately large.
Toes, wings, and hips are thin; eye and ear openings may be delayed.
The skin may be dry and without adequate subcutaneous fat.
Abnormal feather patterns (swirls) may develop on the head of a stunted chick
62
is a catch-all for deformities of the legs in young birds?
| *are laxities of the ligaments of the stifle and/or angular deformities of the femur, tibiotarsus, and tarsometatarsus
splayleg
| *risk factors include nutritional deficiencies and insufficient support or substrate in the enclosure.
63
TX for Splayleg or Rotational Leg Deformity
* external coaptation - are most successful when the bird is young.
* Placing the chick in a deep enclosure with a suspensory device or cloth that allows leg to be directed vertically
* taping the legs together in a “hobble” may be corrective if implemented early.
64
develop because of disruption of the cruciate and /or collateral ligaments
* Stifle subluxation
| * Surgery (osteotomy and external skeletal fixator) may be used for rotational deformities.
65
commonly occurs in several birds from the same clutch and is seen most commonly in cockatoos.
* Mandibular prognathism
* correct by pulling the beak upward and out for several minutes, several times a day.
* older chicks -require a prosthetic
* Trans-sinus pinning is a more recent and more reliable method of correction but carries some risk.
66
is a lateral deviation of the upper or lower beak.
| caused by improper incubation temperature or genetic
Scissor beak
| *manually placing a counter force on the beak for several minutes 2–3 times daily.
67
- fairly common in neonates,, affecting more than one digit,
Constricted Toe Syndrome
most common in Eclectus parrots and macaws,
usually in chicks housed in environments with inadequate humidity.
68
tx for Constricted Toe Syndrome
*detected early, debriding the annular band and applying a moist dressing
* more severe cases, small longitudinal incisions on the medial and lateral surfaces of the affected toe to allow for swelling and promote circulation.
* If circulation loss is severe and necrosis is apparent, amputation may be necessary.
69
usually involves the lateral or fourth toe, which points forward instead of backward.
*Malposition
easily corrected by taping the toe in a normal position.
*In young birds, the foot can be bandaged with the toe pointing backward in the normal position for several days
*Older chicks may need prolonged bandaging.
70
commonly seen in cockatiels and is often observed in clutch mates
* The condition is usually bilateral.
* The eyelids, if present, are generally normal in conformation but greatly reduced in length, leading to small to nonexistent palpebral fissures
Cryptophthalmia (Eyelid Atresia)
71
it is performed to Extend the palpebral fissure
conjunctival eversion
72
the causative agent of a Lockjaw”:
Bordetella avium
* most commonly in cockatiels.
* Prognosis is guarded to grave.
73
Bacterial invasion of Bordetella avium from the sinuses progresses to
the skeletal muscle of the mandible, resulting in a myositis and "lockjaw
74
seen most commonly in African grey parrots
| *
* Choanal Atresia
| * the communication between the nares, infraorbital sinus, and the choana is incomplete or absent
75
CS of Choanal Atresia
*increased mucus accumulation and infection in the nares and sinuses. Blunted choanal papilla may be detected on oral examination.
76
dx and tx of Choanal Atresia
* endoscopic exam
* by creating an opening in the choana through the nares with an intramedullary pin.
* red rubber feeding tube is then threaded through the nares, out the choana, and back behind the head of the bird and is left in place for 2–3 wk.
77
are most common and can lead to systemic disease
GI and respiratory infections
78
Normal bacterial flora of companion birds includes:
```
Lactobacillus,
Corynebacterium,
nonhemolytic Streptococcus,
Micrococcus spp, and
Staphylococcus epidermidis.
```
79
The most commonly reported pathogens in birds are
gram-negative bacteria
(Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Enterobacter, Proteus, and Citrobacter spp, Escherichia coli, and Serratia marcescens).
80
possible septicemia agents in birds attacked by pet cats or rats.
Pasteurella spp
81
common intracellular bacterial pathogens.
Mycobacterium and Chlamydia
82
The most common gram-positive bacterial pathogens are
S.aureus, S.intermedius, Clostridium, Enterococcus, Streptococcus, and other Staphylococcus spp
*Methicillin-resistant S aureus (MRSA) is rare but has been documented
83
have been implicated in chronic sinusitis, often found in cockatiels. This organism is difficult to culture, and the true incidence is unknown
Mycoplasma spp
84
responsible for several dermatologic conditions in psittacine birds.
Staphylococci and streptococci (especially hemolytic strains) and Bacillus spp
85
are often isolated from lesions of pododermatitis (bumblefoot) in many avian species.
Staphylococci
86
are common secondary invaders of damaged cloacal tissue in birds with cloacal prolapse or papillomatosis
Clostridial organisms
| *A Gram stain or anaerobic culture is necessary to identify these organisms
87
is used to identify normal flora, yeast, and spore-forming bacteria
A Gram stain
| *Culture is needed to identify specific organisms and their sensitivity to antibiotics.
88
Sample sites for culture and cytology
choanal slit, sinus, cloaca, wounds, conjunctiva, internal organs (via ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspirates, endoscopic examination, or surgery), and blood
89
obligate intracellular bacterium) - infect all companion birds but is especially common in cockatiels, budgerigars, and parrots
* Chlamydia psittaci
* Zoonotic
* Incubation period - 3 days to several weeks
90
organism is excreted in the feces and in nasal and ocular discharge of infected birds
*these organism can remain infectious in organic debris for >1 mo.
Chlamydia psittaci
91
CS of Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
```
ocular, nasal, or conjunctival irritation and discharge;
anorexia; dyspnea;
depression;
dehydration;
polyuria;
biliverdinuria; and
diarrhea.
```
92
in this dse Clinically ill birds may have a leukocytosis, monocytosis, and increased AST and bile acid concentrations
*hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, or air sacculitis.
Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
93
tx for Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
Doxycycline; treatment for 45 days
* Dietary calcium reduced
* Doxycycline injectable - 75–100 mg/kg every 5–7 days for 6 wk
94
chronic progressive disease affecting the liver and GI tract
Avian Mycobacteriosis
| *most commonly infected are brotogeris parakeets and Amazon parrots
95
CA of Avian Mycobacteriosis
Mycobacterium avium and M genavense.
| Mycobacterium intracellulare, M bovis, and M tuberculosis are less commonly reported
96
CS of Mycobacteriosis in a cockatiel
showing diffuse swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids.
97
Gross lesions of internal organs in psittacines with mycobacteriosis
Liver of a cockatiel -showing moderate diffuse enlargement with multifocal to coalescing yellow e tan foci.
(b) Spleen - showing diffuse and marked enlargement with multifocal to coalescing tan nodules.
(c) Small intestine of a moustached parakeet-showing an irregular mucosa with prominent villi giving a ‘shaggy’ appearance.
(d) Heart of a double yellow- headed Amazon - showing a pale tan-coloured irregular mass at the base of the heart
98
in Avian Mycobacteriosis dx reveal?
* have a significant leukocytosis with a monocytosis.
| * hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. Granulomas may occur
99
DX in Avian Mycobacteriosis
```
DX:
acid-fast staining,
culture, and/or
DNA probe of a biopsy specimen.
Biopsy of the liver, intestines, spleen, or a suspected mass is recommended; however, PCR testing of ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspirates of the liver may be diagnostic
```
100
Use of multiple antibiotics (typically three) is recommended in this dse?
*Avian Mycobacteriosis
| because mycobacterial organisms are prone to developing antibiotic resistance
101
antibiotics for Avian Mycobacteriosis
| *for zoonotic risk, especially in immunocompromised people.
rifabutin (45 mg/kg),
clarithromycin (60–85 mg/kg),
ethambutol (30 mg/kg), and enrofloxacin (20–30 mg/kg). All combinations are used daily
102
are common in companion birds.they are a secondary infection in an already ill or immunocompromised bird.
Fungal diseases
103
The most common fungal diseases are:
respiratory tract infections caused by Aspergillus spp and
| GI tract infections caused by Candida spp.
104
is an unusual fungus that affects the GI tract and occurs most commonly in small pet birds (budgerigars, lovebirds, finches, parrotlets, and cockatiels).
Macrorhabdus
105
a common fungal disease seen in pet birds
Candidiasis
| *CA: opportunistic yeast Candida albicans, which commonly affects the GI tract.
106
the most common isolates Mycotic spp of birds
| *found and may be refractory to treatment.
C albicans - affects unweaned chicks.
C tropicalis, C parapsilosis, C glabrata, and Hansenula spp
107
Candidiasis most commonly affects
unweaned chicks.
Those on broad-spectrum antibiotics are most at risk.
Neonatal cockatiels are considered most susceptible.
108
Clinical signs of Candidiasis in juvenile birds
include anorexia, crop stasis, white plaques in the oral cavity, regurgitation, and weight loss.
* in adults - mild weight loss, lethargy, and dull plumage
109
how to dx Candidiasis
* identifying Candida spp on a Gram, Romanowsky-type, or new methylene blue stain of the feces, crop contents, or regurgitated material.
* Scrapings or impression smears
* when tissue invasion has occurred, the budding yeast will produce hyphae that can be seen in scrapings obtained from the crop or pharynx, or from the feces.
110
is secondary to poor husbandry and an unclean environment.
candidiasis
111
help crop motility and prevent regurgitation.
Metoclopramide
112
tx for Candidiasis
* Nystatin (300,000 IU/kg, PO, bid) is commonly used because of its low cost and low toxicity.
* Disadvantages are poor taste and large volume required
* is fungistatic and not absorbed from the GI tract, it is only effective when in direct contact with infected tissue(tid)
113
what to use If the yeast is resistant to nystatin or the bird is difficult to medicate
fluconazole (20 mg/kg, PO, every 48 hr) is available for systemic treatment.
114
Flock treatment for Candidiasis
chlorhexidine at 10 mL/gal. of drinking water for 1–3 wk.
* is a disinfectant, its use will also deplete the normal digestive flora.
* apple cider vinegar Acidification of the upper GI tract
115
an opportunistic infection that typically occurs in immunocompromised hosts (malnutrition, especially vitamin A deficiency) or when birds are exposed to large numbers of aerosolized spores.
Aspergillosis
| *not transmitted bird-to-bird.
116
most common Aspergillos species isolated;
*Aspergillus fumigatus
*A flavus and A niger are also found.
Rhizopus, Penicillium, Mucor, and Scedosporium apiospermum - more difficult to diagnose and treat.
117
Predisposing factors for developing infection in Aspergillosis include
* species predilection (African grey parrots, Amazon parrots, cockatiels, and macaws),
* aspiration of food or medications, *immunosuppression (underlying disease),
* moldy bedding or feed,
* and use of corticosteroids.
118
DX in Aspergillosis
*A Gram stain or modified Wright’s stain of lesions or debris often demonstrates fungal hyphae.
119
Extensive or chronic fungal sinusitis may lead to
osseous changes and permanent malformation of the upper respiratory architecture.
120
can occur in immunocompromised birds.
Tracheitis due to aspergillosis
121
often form in the syrinx of psittacine birds and raptors and are particularly challenging to treat
Aspergillus granulomas
122
can provide a strong presumptive diagnosis in Aspergillosis
leukocytosis/monocytosis combined with clinical signs and radiographic findings
123
can provide a strong presumptive diagnosis in Aspergillosis
leukocytosis/monocytosis combined with clinical signs and radiographic findings
* birds with chronic disease will be anemic.
* A radiograph may reveal airsacculitis, granulomas, or severe pulmonary disease.
124
inAspergillosis Plasma protein electrophoresis showing
showing increased β-globulin levels
125
tx for Aspergillosis
* Amphotericin B -intratracheally at 1 mg/kg through the glottis
* only fungicidal agent available used intratracheally, and in IV administration.
* nebulization, a concentration of 0.25–1 mg/mL of sterile water can be used.
* Nasal and sinus flushes are generally more dilute at 0.05 mg/mL of sterile water
* not be diluted with saline, because this decreases its potency
126
tx for Aspergillosis
Itraconazole (5–10 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily) most commonly used azole for systemic infection.
* African grey parrots are more sensitive to adverse effects of itraconazole, especially regurgitation and anorexia
* dosed at 5 mg/kg/day, PO
127
tx for Aspergillosis
* used in lieu of or in conjunction with itraconazole.
* used for nebulization in conjunction with systemic therapy
* is being used for resistant strains of Aspergillus.
* Terbinafine (10–15 mg/kg, PO, bid)
* Clotrimazole (10 mg/mL, nebulized 15–30 min 2–4 times/day).
* Voriconazole (12–18 mg/kg, PO, bid)
128
what to do if fungal granulomas are identified and the lesions are accessible
debulking endosurgically or treating the lesions topically with amphotericin B
129
should be monitored every 4 wk during treatment.
| of Aspergillosis
Hepatic enzyme, bile acids, and uric acid concentrations
130
management of birds with Aspergillosis
* Treatment with oral drugs should be continued for 2–4 wk
* Thickened and scarred air sacs that develop during and persist after infection can provide an ideal environment for disease recurrence.
131
Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection occurs in
budgerigars, parrotlets, lovebirds, cockatiels, and finches
132
Previously described as a bacterium, this organism has a worldwide distribution and varies widely in pathogenicity.
Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection (Macrorhabdosis, Megabacteria, Avian gastric yeast
*affects the proventriculus and ventriculus
133
. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection clinical signs may mimic
*proventricular dilatation disease.
Mortality may be high, but birds may recover
134
t/f
Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection In birds that recover, relapses and potential shedding of the organism in the feces are likely.
true
135
This disease is often seen in conjunction with immunosuppression (eg, polyomavirus and circovirus infection, or associated with poor husbandry).
Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection
| *Asymptomatic infection is common.
136
large, rod-shaped organisms are approximately 2–4 µm wide and 60–90 µm long.
* appears as a large, gram-positive rod, with mottling or stippling throughout its length.
* Macrorhabdus ornithogaster
| * Wet mount, modified Wright’s, or Gram stain of a fecal sample often reveal organisms
137
in Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection Radiographs may reveal
```
dilated proventriculus.
Necropsy lesions may include:
thinning of the isthmus,
proventricular dilation and ulceration,
thickening of the proventricular wall,
mucus production, and
softening of the koilin layer of the ventriculus.
```
138
TX:
| for Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection
* Amphotericin (100 mg/kg, PO, bid for 30 days)
* Acidification of the proventriculus (apple cider vinegar, vitamin C) - create an environment less conducive to proliferation of Macrorhabdus.
* Voriconazole has been successful (anecdotal) at 10 mg/kg, PO, bid.
* Sodium benzoate -½ tsp (2.5 g)
139
how to CONTROL:Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection
Asymptomatic carriers are common.
Artificial incubation of eggs and hand feeding nestlings can help establish a pathogen-free flock
140
reported in birds with feather picking and dermatologic conditions.
*Culture is often unrewarding.
Malassezia spp
141
TX: Malassezia spp
fluconazole at 5–10 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily
| *dilute chlorhexidine 0.1% spray or clotrimazole
142
- worldwide in occurrence and caused by a saprophytic fungus.
* uncommon in avian species, but it has been isolated from the fecal droppings of wild birds, particularly pigeons, and from feces of canaries and psittacine birds.
```
Cryptococcus neoformans (Cryptococcosis)
C neoformans is zoonotic
```
143
C neoformans infection has been reported in
Columbiformes, a Moluccan cockatoo, a thick-billed parrot, a green-wing macaw, and an African grey parrot
144
With CNS involvement, neurologic signs such as blindness and paralysis
Cryptococcus neoformans (Cryptococcosis)
145
this organism is a round to oval yeast with a mucopolysaccharide capsule.
*A mucoid gelatinous exudate may be noted within the respiratory tract, coelomic cavity, sinuses, brain, or within the long bones.
*Cryptococcus neoformans
146
are the drugs of choice for CNS or ocular infections in Cryptococcosis
*Fluconazole or voriconazole a
147
a yeast occasionally seen in skin infection in raptors (falcons).
*causes yellowish brown crusty areas of the skin in the axillary or inguinal areas
* Rhodotorula mucilaginosis
| * Untreated lesions may develop into hyperkeratotic proliferative growths
148
Miscellaneous Mycoses
```
1. Dermatophytosis – including:
Trichophyton and
Microsporum spp is occasionally reported in pet birds.
2. Histoplasmosis and
3. Mucormycosis
```
149
Commonly reported parasitic diseases
* protozoal infections such as *giardiasis in cockatiels,
* sarcocystis in larger parrots, and
* mites in budgerigars and passerines.
150
. Protozoa in birds
1. Haemoproteus -imported Cacatua spp.
2. Leucocytozoon,
3. Plasmodium, and
4. Atoxoplasma spp - in canaries
151
Giardiasis: - reported in many species of birds but is most commonly seen in
cockatiels.
Adult birds may be latent carriers.
Transmission is presumably direct (ingestion of infective cysts).
152
CS of Giardiasis:
* feather pulling in the axillary and inner thigh regions, along with vocalization.
* Droppings of affected cockatiels may be voluminous and aerated (a “popcorn” appearance
153
DX: in . Giardiasis includes
1. zinc sulfate flotation test of feces to detect cysts,
2. direct saline smear of fresh feces to detect motile trophozoites,
3. and ELISA test for Giardia spp antigen in feces
4. snap test
154
TX: for Giardiasis:
* Metronidazole (50 mg/kg/day, for 5–7 days) or
* Carnidazole (20 mg/kg/day, PO, for 1–2 days) is the recommended treatment
* In cockatiels fenbendazole at dosages extrapolated from dogs has been anecdotally reported to cause death
155
Trichomoniasis: - reported in many orders of birds, including
```
Columbiformes,
Galliformes,
Falconiformes,
Psittaciformes, and
Passeriformes.
```
156
Trichomonas gallinae are called___in birds of prey?
* called frounce
* canker in
* Trichomonas gallinae occasionally seen in pet birds, notably budgerigars
157
CS of Trichomoniasis in raptors and Columbiformes
Whitish yellow, caseous lesions adherent to the mucosa of the oropharynx, crop, and esophagus
158
CS of Trichomoniasis in Budgerigars
do not have grossly visible oral lesions but do have increased salivation and regurgitation.
159
MOT of Trichomoniasis
* direct (parents feeding young)
* indirect (ingestion of contaminated food and water) contact; raptors may become infected by ingesting infected pigeons or doves.
160
coccidia are much more common in
gallinaceous or Columbiforme birds,
| *although coccidial oocysts are seen occasionally in psittacine and passerine birds.
161
seen in a variety of avian species but is thought to be a secondary rather than a primary pathogen.
*Transmission - through ingestion or inhalation of sporulated oocysts
Cryptosporidiosis
162
is the best diagnostic test in Cryptosporidiosis
* Sheather's sugar flotation test is best.
| * acid-fast stain can also be used to detect the organism.
163
Plasmodium spp infection (malaria) - highly pathogenic in
gyrfalcons, canaries, and penguins.
* Plasmodium is spread by mosquitoes
* TX: chloroquine
164
highly pathogenic protozoal disease that causes hepatomegaly and splenomegaly in canaries?
*with coccidia-like oocysts shed in the feces.
Atoxoplasmosis
| *severe in fledgling birds, *adults are often asymptomatic.
165
diagnostic test in Atoxoplasmosis
* : fecal flotation (best in adults
* buffy coat smear with Romanowsky stain,
* liver impression smear, or *PCR testing of feces.
166
tx for atoxoplasmosis
* toltrazuril (12.5 mg/kg/day, PO, × 14 days)
| * sulfachlorpyridazine (150–300 mg/L drinking water, 5 days/wk × 2–3 wk).
167
Ascarids – Common in
budgerigars, cockatiels, and psittacine; also found in many birds who have access to the ground
168
Tiny thread-like worms that infect the gastrointestinal tract of many companion birds, such as macaws, canaries, budgerigars, pigeons, and gallinaceous birds
Capillaria
169
These infect the intestines of cockatoos, parakeets, parrots, and macaws, and include four types of eyeworms
Spiruroidea
170
Syngamus – These are rarely found in companion birds, but are more common in
galliformes and anseriformes
171
These populate the eyes, heart, joints, organs, and subcutaneous tissues of cockatoos and psittacines
Filariidea
172
Mot of . Roundworms:
by ingestion of embryonated ova.
C/S --loss of condition, weakness, emaciation, and death; intestinal obstruction is common in heavy infections
DX.by fecal flotation
173
tx Roundworms
1. Ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO, SC, or IM, repeated in 10–14 days).
2. Pyrantel pamoate (4.5 mg/kg, PO, repeated in 10–14 days), or
3. Fenbendazole (20–50 mg/kg, PO, repeated in 14 days) are generally effective.
174
t/f
roundworm
In warm climates where exposure via outdoor aviaries is likely, routine deworming (every 6 mo
t
175
The most common pet birds infected with tapeworms are
cockatoos, African grey parrots, and finches.
* Intermediate hosts are likely insects and arachnids of various types, earthworms, and slugs.
* Infected birds are asymptomatic or are unthrifty, with or without diarrhea.
176
tx for Cestodes
: Praziquantel (5–10 mg/kg, PO or IM, once) is the recommended treatment.
177
Parasites of the Integument which is common in budgerigars and rare in all other psittacine species
Knemidocoptes pilae (also Cnemidocoptes pilae)
* causes Scaly Face (Leg) Mite:
178
CS of Scaly Face (Leg) Mite in budgerigars
*white, porous, proliferative encrustations involving the corners of the mouth, cere, beak, and occasionally the periorbital area, legs, or vent are typical
179
CS of Scaly Face (Leg) Mite in passerine birds
| canaries and European goldfinches
crusts form on the legs and surfaces of the digits (“tassel foot”).
180
DX test for . Scaly Face (Leg) Mite
* facial scrapings of budgerigars(pathognomonic)
* skin scrapings of the legs often result in hemorrhage and are generally not recommended in passerine
tx.
* Ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or IM) or
* Moxidectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or topically) is generally effective. The treatment is repeated in 2 wk.
181
___birds are seldom affected by feather mites.
Psittacine birds
182
red mite
Dermanyssus gallinae
183
Mite-infested birds may be treated with
pyrethrin sprays,
| 5% carbaryl powder, or ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or IM) repeated in 2 wk.
184
parasitizes the entire respiratory tract, most frequently of canaries and gouldian finches
*mites are found in the trachea, syrinx, lungs, and air sacs
Sternostoma tracheacolum
* All stages of the mite are found within the respiratory tissues
* Mortality can be high
185
dx test for Sternostoma tracheacolum
*Transillumination of the trachea in a darkened room
186
tx for Sternostoma tracheacolum
Ivermectin (0.2–0.4 mg/kg, PO or IM) repeated in 2 wk or moxidectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or topically
187
major cause of mortality in parrots housed outdoors.
*oocysts of this protozoan parasite are passed from infected opossum feces by insects (eg, flies, cockroaches) or mice and rats into the feed cups or enclosure of the birds and a rapidly fatal disease can develop.
Sarcocystosis
* not contagious
* Large die-offs
188
a high mortality rate is observed in these untreated birds with Sarcocystosis
cockatoos, African grey parrots, and Eclectus parrots
* Cockatiels are also susceptible
* Old World species are immunologically naive to this disease
189
Sarcocystosis
| -pneumonic lesions are often noted at necropsy in this species.
Cockatiels
190
t/f
Sarcocystosis
this disease occurs in the early stages of infection as the parasite is undergoing schizogony or merogony (asexual reproduction) in the lung.
*This causes lung damage, and the birds die acutely with or without signs of respiratory distress
t
| in Old World parrots (eg, cockatoos, African grey parrots),
191
Sarcocystosis
t/f
In New World parrots (eg, macaws, conures), the organism encysts in the muscle or CNS, causing weakness, ataxia, or neurologic signs.
true
| *Encephalitis - psittacines and raptors.
192
dx in Sarcocystosis
* plasma protein electrophoresis may indicate infection (marked increase in β-globulin concentrations with or without a marked increase in gamma globulin concentrations)
* indirect immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) test -aid in antemortem diagnosis of the nonperacute form of sarcocystosis in psittacine birds
* muscle biopsy (quadriceps muscle
* Increases in enzyme activities of LDH, AST, and CK
193
tx for Sarcocystosis
* trimethoprim/sulfa (30 mg/kg, bid) and
* pyrimethamine (0.5 mg/kg, PO, bid)
*Sarcocystis neurona, that affects horses
194
other name of Avian Polyomavirus/AVP
(Papovavirus,
Budgerigar fledgling disease,
Psittacine polyomavirus
*primarily affects young birds.
195
AVP Two primary forms based on species affected
* budgerigar fledgling disease
* nonbudgerigar polyoma infection
* Both are characterized by peracute to acute death of preweaned neonates.
196
incubation period of AVP
7–10 days
| *Adult birds typically are resistant to infection; they will seroconvert and shed the virus for up to 90 days
197
Other clinical signs for AVP
| : budgerigar fledging disease
are cutaneous hemorrhage, abdominal distention, and feather abnormalities.
*Surviving budgerigars >3 wk old often exhibit feather dystrophy (French molt or feather dusters
198
CS: nonbudgerigar polyoma disease
subclinical disease or hemorrhages and coagulopathies
199
Gross necropsy findings in Avian Polyomavirus/AVP
* deceased chicks often include pale skeletal musculature and subcutaneous ecchymotic hemorrhages.
* kidneys and liver are enlarged and may be pale, congested, and mottled, or have pinpoint, white foci.
* Petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages may also be present on viscera, particularly the heart
* hydropericardium.
* Intranuclear inclusion bodies
200
AVP control
all breeding must be stopped for 6 mo
201
tx for AVP
*is supportive care.
A vaccine is available
*breeding birds, two doses of the vaccine
*administered at a 2-wk interval; this should be done off-season.
*administration of the first dose when the chick is >35 days old, with a booster vaccination in 2–3 wk
202
caused by a psittacine circovirus.
* Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PFBD
* recognized in the 1970s
* by inhalation and/or ingestion of the virus and can occur vertically.
203
In the classic PBFD infection, the first indication of the presence of disease is
*lack of powder down on the beak.
*virus causes abnormal formation of growing feathers and immunosuppression
*
204
the disease occurs in young birds, which develop enteritis and pneumonia, lose weight, and die
A peracute form of (PFBD
205
in (PFBD) African grey parrots may develop___ a because the virus attacks the bone marrow
pancytopenia,
| *birds die with viral inclusions in the thymus, bursa, and bone marrow.
206
dx result in (PFBD)
intranuclear or intracytoplasmic inclusions may be seen histologically in the feathers, bursa, thymus, liver, or other organs.
207
tx for (PFBD)
* Isolation and eventual euthanasia
* Strict hygiene
* PCR testing of both birds
* infected breeding colonies, removing all eggs for cleaning and artificial incubation
208
causes a viral hepatitis seen predominantly in New World species (Amazon parrots, macaws, and conures
Pacheco’s Disease (Pacheco’s herpesvirus) -
209
is an alpha herpesvirus that is the causative agent of Pacheco’s disease and internal papillomatosis in parrots.
Psittacine herpesvirus
210
occurs in parrots that have survived Pacheco’s disease and most commonly observed in macaws, Amazon parrots, conures, and hawk-headed parrots.
nternal papillomatosis
211
incubation period of Pacheco’s Disease (Pacheco’s herpesvirus
* 3–14 days
| * spread by direct contact, aerosol, or fecal contamination of food or water
212
t/fin Pacheco’s Disease Infected birds become chronic carriers and will remain persistently infected and intermittently shed the virus throughout their lives.
true
| *Patagonian species and some Aratinga spp may be natural hosts in the wild
213
Terminal signs in Pacheco’s Disease
acute death in well-fleshed birds and bright yellow urates with scant feces.
214
dx test in Pacheco’s Disease
* DNA probes of combined oral and cloacal swabs or blood samples
* Increases in plasma AST activity
* leukopenia
* hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and renomegaly.
215
DD in Pacheco’s Disease
acute salmonellosis, polyomavirus, and psittacine reovirus.
216
tx in Pacheco’s Disease
* Acyclovir (80 mg/kg, tid, or 400 mg/kg in feed) - used during an outbreak
* Autogenous vaccines - decreased morbidity and mortality.
* inactivated vaccine is available
217
Lesions of papillomatosis -(Internal papillomatosis )predominantly present in the
oral and cloacal mucosa but may also be found internally in the intestinal tract, or less commonly, in the conjunctiva or bursa
218
Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD - also known as
```
macaw wasting disease,
neuropathic ganglioneuritis,
lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis,
psittacine encephalomyelitis,
avian bornavirus (ABV),
*recognized in the late 1970s in macaws imported into the USA and Germany
```
219
Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD caused by?
* avian bornavirus.
| * affects macaws, conures, and African grey parrots, although all parrots are probably susceptible.
220
DD of Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD
```
heavy metal toxicosis,
foreign body intestinal obstruction,
internal papillomatosis,
internal neoplasia, and
GI infections (including bacterial and fungal proventricular infections
```
221
tx for ABV
* NSAID
* PCR (a minimum of three tests) and separating positive birds from negative birds is a recommended
* ABV is not a long-lived virus in the environment; therefore
* good hygiene and ultraviolet light can help to limit spread of disease in a home or aviary setting
222
large DNA viruses that induce intracytoplasmic, lipophilic inclusion bodies (Bollinger bodies) in the epithelial cells of the integument, respiratory tract, and oral cavity.
Poxviruses
* All birds are considered susceptible to poxvirus
* environmentally stable
* cannot penetrate intact skin, and a break in the skin or mucous membrane must be present for infection to occur
223
types of Poxvirus infection
Cutaneous - appears as nodular proliferations or wartlike lesions on the unfeathered skin around the eyes, beak, nares, and legs. Most commonly seen in psittacines and raptors.
Diphtheritic - characterized by lesions on the mucosa, tongue, pharynx, and larynx
Systemic - characterized by a ruffled appearance, depression, cyanosis, anorexia, and wartlike tumors of the skin infections
224
dx procedure in poxvirus
History, physical examination findings,
| and histologic findings of Bollinger bodies in affected tissues.
225
tx for poxvirus
Nonspecific and may include supportive care, fluids, parenteral vitamin A, ophthalmic ointments for eye infections, assisted feedings, and antibiotics to prevent or treat secondary infections.
226
MOT of Poxvirus
* insect vectors (mosquito bites) or other entry through breaks in the skin.
* Vaccines for canarypox, fowlpox, and pigeonpox are available but are specific for their host species.
227
caused by a paramyxovirus group 1, affects most avian species and is a significant threat to the poultry industry
Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease VVND (Exotic Newcastle disease)
228
MOT of Newcastle
respiratory aerosols, fecal contamination of food or water, direct contact with infected birds, and fomites
229
CS for NW
unilateral or bilateral wing and leg paralysis, chorea, torticollis, and dilated pupils also may be seen.
230
DD for exotic Newcastle
other paramyxoviruses (non-Newcastle),
psittacine proventricular dilatation syndrome, and
heavy metal toxicosis.
231
DX for Exotic Newcastle disease
via viral isolation,
| but agar gel immunodiffusion tests that can be performed on whole blood or serum
232
lx for exotic NewCastle
hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages on serosal surfaces of all viscera and air sacs, airsacculitis, and excess straw-colored peritoneal fluid.
233
Other Paramyxovirus Infections
1. Paramyxovirus groups 2 - causes mild illness in passerines and a more serious disease in psittacines.
2. Paramyxovirus group 3 - most frequently in Neophema spp, lovebirds, and gouldian finches
tx
*vaccine for paramyxovirus group 1 should not be used in psittacines, because it can cause fatal reactions.
234
arthropodborne virus in the genus Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae).
* West Nile Virus (WNV)
* reported in birds in the USA in August 1999.
* it has been reported in >320 species of birds.
235
have suffered particularly high morbidity and mortality with WNV
```
American crow (Corvus brachyrunchus) and other corvids
*Other affected species include canaries, psittacines, and raptors.
```
236
are the principal vectors of disease.
Mosquitoes (Culex spp)
237
the most commonly affected WNV
Juvenile birds
238
Ophthalmologic findings in raptors with WNV are
anterior uveitis, exudative chorioretinal lesions, and chorioretinal scarring.
239
DX test for WNV
* Paired samples submitted 2 wk apart
* dx determined at necropsy
* brain and kidney are the preferred tissues
240
tx for WNV
*recombinant vaccine 2–4 wk before mosquito season, with a booster 3 wk after the initial dose.
241
caused by an orthomyxovirus.
*zoonotic potential
*
Avian Influenza
242
Most pet birds have the potential to live at
20−80 yr, depending on their size (with smaller birds having a shorter life span and larger birds a longer life span).
243
Geriatric Diseases of Pet Birds
| Cataracts - occur in many species of psittacine birds as they age, notably in
*macaws, Amazon parrots, and cockatiels.
244
often develop secondary to infection or trauma or may be age related
Cataracts
| *Uveitis may also be present.
245
ophthalmic conditions that may be encountered in geriatric birds
```
keratoconjunctivitis sicca,
corneal ulcerations,
eyelid abnormalities,
hypopyon,
anterior uveitis,
conjunctival granulomas,
infection of the conjunctiva (eg, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, poxvirus),
Harderian gland adenoma, and
lymphoma.
```
246
t/f
Commonly used mydriatics are not useful in birds because of the skeletal (as opposed to smooth) muscle found in the iris.
true
247
Arthritis in birds that most common in the digits.
Septic arthritis
248
- also common in geriatric birds and can lead to other issues such as pododermatitis if not caught early and treated.
Osteoarthritis
249
Radiographic lesions in arthritis
narrowing of the joint space, sclerosis of the subchondral bone, misalignment of the joint, and osteophyte formation.
250
Commonly affected joints are the
tarsus, stifle, and phalangeal joints.
| *joints of the thoracic limb appear to be less commonly affected.
251
tx for artritis
NSAIDs, chondroprotectants, and possibly opioids
| *meloxicam (0.5–1 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily), a COX-2 inhibitor
252
Potential adverse effects of NSAIDs
*renal ischemia, so they should be used with caution longterm and at the lowest therapeutic dose possible.
253
may be necessary for acute exacerbations of a chronic arthritic condition or for conditions not responding initially to NSAIDs.
Opioids
254
may be used until the NSAIDs take effect.
Tramadol (15–30 mg/kg, PO, bid-qid) or butorphanol (0.5–3 mg/kg, IM, every 4 hr
255
management for arhritis
Encouraging flighted birds (without clipped wings) to fly in a safe environment is the best form of exercise
256
may have an anti-inflammatory effect and be renal protective.
Fatty acids
| *Flax seed oil ( 0.1–0.2 mL/kg/day, PO) is recommended as the best source of fatty acid supplementation for birds.
257
relatively common condition of older pet birds.
* is often a sequela of osteoarthritis.
* progressive disease
Bumblefoot
258
Effective antibiotics for Pododermatitis /bumblefoot
amoxicillin/clavulanate (125 mg/kg, PO, tid), enrofloxacin (10–15 mg/kg, PO, bid), and marbofloxacin (5 mg/kg/day) for 10–14 days.
259
may be seen at any age, but older birds are more likely to develop this kind of dse
Renal Disease
260
tx for renal dse
* fluid therapy) and antibiotics
* Colchicine (0.04 mg/kg, PO, bid) and allopurinol (10–30 mg/kg, PO, bid
* Essential fatty acids (omega 3) at 0.1–0.22 mL/kg/day, PO, have been used anecdotally
261
has been associated with atherosclerosis in pet birds, and potential risk factors are a sedentary lifestyle, a high-fat diet, and hypercholesterolemia.
Cardiac disease
262
CS for cardiac dse
right-side heart disease, hepatomegaly and ascites are common.
*In birds, right-side cardiac disease is more prevalent than left-side
263
tx for cardiac dse
Enalapril (0.25–0.5 mg/kg/day, PO), furosemide (0.15–2 mg/kg, PO, SC, or IM, once to twice daily), pimobendan (6 mg/kg, PO, bid), and digoxin (0.01-0.02 mg/kg, PO, bid).
264
a proliferative lesion of the tunica media and tunica intima of elastic and muscular arteries causing abnormal vascular flow and loss of endothelial integrity initiating thrombosis.
Atherosclerosis
* is common in psittacine birds
* Amazon parrots, macaws, and African grey parrots seem to be particularly susceptible.
265
most affected birds are in what age?
10–15 yr old), sedentary lifestyle, and a high-fat diet.
* At necropsy, grossly thickened arterial walls are seen.
* Lipemia is often present, and marked increases in cholesterol and triglyceride conc
266
tx for Atherosclerosis
Isoxsuprine (10 mg/kg/day, PO) has been used anecdotally with some success.
Essential fatty acids (flax seed oil at 0.1–0.2 mL/kg/day, PO) have been advocated and used to reduce cholesterol and inflammation
267
can affect birds of any age but is more common in geriatric birds.
Liver Disease
* Hepatic lipidosis is most commo
* n, possibly resulting from longterm feeding of an inappropriate (high-fat) diet
268
can result in fibrosis of the liver and decreased liver function and failure.
Chronic liver disease
269
liver dse Imaging (radiographs or CT scan and/or ultrasound) may reveal
hepatomegaly or microhepatica.
270
Liver Disease tx
silymarin (milk thistle) (100–150 mg/kg, PO, bid) and ursodeoxycholic acid (10–15 mg/kg/day, PO).
