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MCAT P/S > P/S > Flashcards

P/S Flashcards

1
Q

Sensory Adaptation

A

downregulation of a receptor over time due to being overstimulated
1. Hearing: inner ear will maintain contraction
2. Touch: temperature receptors desensitized
3. Smell: receptors get desensitized
4. Proprioreception: Body will acclimate to being off balanced by finding new equilibrium
5. Sight: eyes will adapt to high or low light conditions

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2
Q

Weber’s law

A

Law of the just noticeable difference (JND)
- Threshold where you’re able to detect ∆es in sensation
- Ex.) adding 0.5 lbs to 5 lbs vs 0.5 lbs to 200 lbs

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3
Q

Absolute Threshold of sensation

A

Stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
- Can depend on the individual and how primed they are

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4
Q

Subliminal stimuli

A

stimuli below the absolute threshold

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5
Q

Vestibular system f(x)

A

balance and spatial orientation
- Focus on the inner ear which contains the semicircular canals (detector) and endolymph (liquid)
- Shifts can be detected which can result in dizziness

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6
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

how we make decisions under periods of uncertainty (discerning what stimuli is “important”)
- We recognize important stimuli and unimportant “noise”

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7
Q

Bottom up processing

A

stimulus influences out perception
- we process sensory info as it comes in
- Ex) we perceive small pieces of info and put them together

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8
Q

Top-down processing

A

background info informs our perception
- our perception is driven by cognition
- Ex) we know what we are looking for

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9
Q

Gestalt’s principles

A
  1. similarity: items that are similar are grouped together
  2. Pragnanz: reality is organized into simpler forms (seeing olympic symbol vs 5 rings)
  3. proximity: objects close together are grouped together
  4. continuity: lines follow the smoothest path
  5. closure: objects seen together are seen as a whole
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10
Q

Structure of the eye

A
  • cornea: transparent sheet of tissue that focuses the eye
  • anterior chamber: contains fluid that maintains shape of eye
  • lens: bends light so it goes to the back of the eye
  • ciliary muscle: responsible for eye movement
  • vitreous chamber: filled w/ vitreous jelly and provide pressure to the eyeball
  • retina: filled with photoreceptors; rods and cones
  • choroid: helps to supply oxygen to the eye w/ its blood vessels
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11
Q

Rods (eye)

A

detect light

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12
Q

Cones (eye)

A

detect color

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13
Q

Phototransduction cascade

A
  1. Light hits retinal and causes a ∆ in conformation of larger protein rhodopsin
  2. Transducin, bound to rhodopsin, will unbind and bind phosphodiesterase (PDE)
  3. PDE converts cGMP to GMP
  4. low [cGMP] results in low Na+ entering into the cell, causing hyperpolarization and reduced glutamate activity
  5. Bipolar cell is no longer inhibited by glutamate and the optic nerve sends an impulse to the brain
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14
Q

Rod vs cone recovery time

A

Rods have slow recovery time, cones have a quick recovery time

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15
Q

Parallel processing

A

See everything @ the same time, and process what’s important from what’s not important
- see a stop sign and a Taco Bell but respond to sign Bc it’s more important

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16
Q

Sound is detected through
1.
2.

A
  1. pressurized sound waves
  2. hair cells
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17
Q

Bones in eardrum

A

malleus, incus, stapes

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18
Q

How does sound get transmitted from ear to brain

A

Fluid in the cochlea also moves back and forth in accordance w/ sound waves
- sound waves move the hairs around, which cause K+ channels to open, allowing K to flow into the cells
- Once K+ enters into the cells, Ca2+ also enters the cells and can begin the AP to activate the auditory nerve

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19
Q

What is the hearing threshold?

A

20-20,000 Hz

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20
Q

Basilar tuning

A

Varying hair cells in the cochlea are used to differentiate differing fq of noise

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21
Q

Tonotypical mapping

A

The “map” of sounds the brain makes based on its differences in fq

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22
Q

Somatosensation

A

physiological mechanism by which we manifest physical stimuli and perceive its feeling as touch, pressure and pain

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23
Q

Types of somatosensation
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

A
  1. Temperature
  2. Pressure (mechanoreception)
  3. Pain (nociception)
  4. Position and balance (proprioception)
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24
Q

Sensory amplification

A

upregulation in perception of stimulus

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25
Q

Sensory cortex

A

map of the brain that links to physical sensation
- physically stimulating the brain will activate feelings in certain parts of the body

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26
Q

Kinesthesia vs proprioception

A

Kinesthesia: awareness of the movement of your body
Proprioception: how we perceive the position of our bodies, especially equilibrium and balance
- Awareness of our bodies in space

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27
Q

TrypV1 receptor

A

thermoreceptor

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28
Q

How many mlc can bind to a olfactory receptor?

A

1 type of mlc

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29
Q

How is smell received? (Steps 1-4)

A
  1. mlc will bind to GPCR
  2. olfactory cell send AP to the olfactory bulb
  3. all receptors coalesce to the glomerulus
  4. Glomeruli border and fire onto the mitral/tufted cell
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30
Q

Pheromones

A

mlc that can be detected via olfactory reception

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31
Q

Amygdala

A

involved w/ emotion, aggression, mating, etc
- If destroyed, we get a mellowing effect

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32
Q

Gustation is what sensation?

A

Taste

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33
Q

5 tastes

A

bitter, salty, sweet, savory, sour

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34
Q

Differential association theory

A

a person learns deviant vehavior from those in their close social group

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35
Q

Labeling theory

A

deviant behavior in the past can cause a person to be stigmatized long-term

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36
Q

GPCR taste receptors

A
  1. Sweet
  2. Savory
  3. Bitter
    - reception of these mlcs results in signal transduction cascade (ex. glucose binding to GPCR and causes signal cascade to fire AP to brain [very indirect])
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37
Q

ion channel taste receptors

A
  1. Sour
  2. Salty
    - bind to receptor directly (ex. NaCl binds to salt receptor which causes AP to fire)
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38
Q

Low vs high p-values (statistical analysis)

A

Low p-value: high evidence = there is an effect
High p-value: low evidence/no effect

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39
Q

Conscienceness

A

awareness of self and environment
- range from alertness to sleep

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40
Q

Daydreaming

A

feel more relaxed, not focused
- can also be light meditation

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41
Q

Sleep waves (B-A-T-D)

A

Sleep: not aware of the world around you
- Beta waves (high fq): associated with awake and concentration
- Alpha waves: daydreaming, drowsy and appear in deep sleep. Happens during relaxation
- Theta waves: drowsiness right after you’ve fallen asleep
- Delta waves (low fq): deep sleep or coma

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42
Q

EEGs measure…

A

brain waves

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43
Q

Order of the stages of sleep

A

sleep happens in patterns and occurs in 90 min cycles
- N1—›N2—›N3—›N2—›REM

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44
Q

Non-rapid eye movement sleep stage

A

first stage of sleep (non-REM)

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45
Q

N1 stage of sleep

A

50:50 mix of alpha and theta waves
- Can result in mild hallucinations
- Can lead to the Tetris effect: playing Tetris before bed and you see blocks

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46
Q

N2 stage of sleep

A

Deeper stage of sleep that has majority theta waves (deep sleep)

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47
Q

Sleep spindles

A

Found in the N2 phase of sleep
- help inhibit perceptions so we maintain tranquil state while sleeping
- Allow us to sleep through loud noises

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48
Q

K-complexes

A

suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep
- helps in sleep-based memory consolidation

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49
Q

N3 stage of sleep

A

slow wave sleep
- characterized by delta waves

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50
Q

REM (rapid-eye movement) stage

A

dreaming occurs
- brain is active but body is paralyzed
- Waking up during this phase prevents memory formation of the dream
- Inc. activity in prefrontal cortex (resp for logic)

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51
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

cycle of sleep and awakeness
- Based upon melatonin released by the pineal gland
- Daylight is a queue

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52
Q

Dreaming theories
1. Freud
2. Evolutionary biologist
3. Other

A
  1. Freud thought that it was the unconscious desires wanting to be interpreted
  2. Biologist assumes that it’s about threat simulation so that we’re ready for the real world
  3. Some support that it helps maintain brain flexibility
    - Helps to consolidate thoughts to long-term memory
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53
Q

Activation synthesis hypothesis (dreaming)

A

brain gets lots of neural inputs while sleeping into the prefrontal cortex
- Brain tries to make sense of the random brain activity and dreams are that

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54
Q

Problems coming from sleep deprivation

A
  1. Obesity (body makes more cortisol, stim hunger)
  2. Depression
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55
Q

Sleep debt

A

sleeping after skipping it can put us on the right track for healthy sleep habits

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56
Q

insomnia vs narcolepsy

A

insomnia: can’t fall asleep
narcolepsy: can’t stay awake

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57
Q

Sleep apnea

A

Happens when we sleep and get reduced airflow into the body
- We literally asphyxiate since we’re not getting enough O2 and we wake up briefly

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58
Q

Hypnotism

A

Get person to relax and focus on breathing
- Makes them more suggestible in that state

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59
Q

Dissociation theory (hypnotism)

A

hypnotism is extreme form of divided consciousness

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60
Q

Social influence theory

A

people do and report what’s expected of them

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61
Q

Depressants

A

lower the body’s basic f(x)s
Ex.) heart rate, rxn time, etc

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62
Q

Barbiturates

A

used to induce sleep and reduce anxiety
- Depress CNS

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63
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

Sleep aid and anti-anxiety medication
- Super common
- Enhances brain’s response to GABA which opens Cl- channels making neurons more -q’ed
When GABA is active, we are able to relax

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64
Q

Opiates

A

used to treat pain and anxiety
- Act upon the body’s endorphin receptors

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65
Q

Caffeine

A

Inhibit AMP receptors and disrupts sleep

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66
Q

Nicotine

A

disrupts sleep and reduces appetite
- @ high levels it can cause muscle relaxation and stress reduction
- Physiologically addicting

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67
Q

Cocaine

A

stimulant
- causes unnatural influx of dopamine, serotonin and norep.
- Depletion of these chemicals results in withdrawal sx’s

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68
Q

Amphetamines

A

trigger the release of dopamine
- highly addictive

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69
Q

Ecstacy

A

Both a stimulant and hallucinogen
- Inc. dopamine and serotonin
- Stim. CNS but can damage neurons by doing that

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70
Q

LSD

A

interferes with serotonin which causes visual hallucinations

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71
Q

Marijuana

A

THC inc. sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells
- impairs locomotion and coordination
- Disrupts memory formation and short-term recall

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72
Q

Homeostasis and drug dependence

A

When you take a drug and build habits before taking it, your body adapts to make sure it gets to baseline by the time you consume it
- Ex.) when you smell coffee when making it, you become lower in energy b/c your body is anticipating caffeine

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73
Q

How are dopamine and serotonin related?

A

Reciprocally regulated

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74
Q

Tolerance

A

Getting used to stimulus
- Ex.) needing more drug to get same effect

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75
Q

Methandone

A

Helps to detox opiate addicts
- Activates opiate receptors but slowly, so as to dampen the high
- Reduces withdrawal and cravings and the high from using opiates (receptors are in use)

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76
Q

Cognitive behavioral therapy

A

Addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction
- By recognizing bad situations, you are able to respond better, especially w/ coping strategies

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77
Q

Motivational interviewing (withdrawal)

A

working with pt to find intrinsic motivation to ∆

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78
Q

Relapse

A

Pt goes back into addictive behaviors

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79
Q

Divided attention

A

focusing on multiple things @ once which often leads to switching b/w them when it comes to tasks

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80
Q

Selective attention

A

When we process stimuli selectively as they come in

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81
Q

Exogenous cues

A

Sensory stimuli that require no effort to notice
- Ex.) bright colors, loud noises

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82
Q

Endogenous cues

A

require understanding to know that it’s a stimulus
- Ex.) Arrow —›

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83
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

Brain is able to take in multiple stimuli but focuses auditory attention on 1 particular stimulus

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84
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

when we focus attention at a point, we are unaware of other things not in our visual field

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85
Q

Change blindness

A

don’t notice changes

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86
Q

Broadbent early selection theory (a theory of selective attention)

A
  1. Info enters our brain (words),
  2. unnecessary info gets sorted out (accents),
  3. important info get recognized (who said something and what those words mean)
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87
Q

Deutch & Deutch late selection theory (a theory of selective attention)

A

Info is filtered AS IT ENTERS our brain, then important info gets passed to conscious awareness (Brita filter)
- This filter determines what is important enough to pass onto the brain

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88
Q

Treisman’s attenuation theory (a theory of selective attention)

A

When info enters our brain, it doesn’t get filtered out completely but “attenuated” (shitty filter)
- Everything enters our consciousness, but less important things aren’t assigned high priority

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89
Q

Priming

A

Exposure to 1 stim affects response to another stim
- Happens even when we weren’t paying attention to the 2nd stim
- previous exp influences our current interpretation of new events

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90
Q

Resource model of attention

A

attention is a limited resource

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91
Q

Multitasking/divided attention is affect by 3 factors

A
  1. Task similarity: if tasks are similar, then they are easy to do together
  2. Task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus
  3. Practice: if we know what we’re doing, then it’s easier to do mindlessly
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92
Q

Information processing model

A

Brain is like computer
- Input information (sensory), process it, output decisions

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93
Q

Iconic memory

A

what we remember what we see (0.5 sec)

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94
Q

Echoic memory

A

what we remember about what we hear (3-4 sec)

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95
Q

Working memory

A

Another name for short term memory/what you’re thinking about in the moment

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96
Q

Phonological loop (working memory)

A

temporarily holds verbal information
- same thing as echoic memory

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97
Q

Central executive

A

Controls and processes working memory

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98
Q

Episodic buffer (working memory)

A

stores visual and auditory info
- records whole “episodes”

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99
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad (working memory)

A

how we hold spatial + visual info
- Ex.) remember how to do specific Judo moves

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100
Q

dual coding hypothesis

A

easier to remember words when they’re associated w/ images

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101
Q

long-term memory

A

Storage of information for extended period of time
- capacity is limited

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102
Q

Explicit memory (long-term)

A

facts/events that we can clearly describe
- semantic or episodic

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103
Q

Semantic memory

A

ability to recall words, concepts, #’s
- knowing vocab

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104
Q

Episodic memory

A

memories related to events

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105
Q

Implicit memory

A

memory that cannot be described but is just known
- Ex.) Speaking our native language

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106
Q

Procedural memory

A

memory of how to do things (riding a bike)

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107
Q

5 ways to encode info

A
  1. Rote reversal: do the same thing over and over again
  2. chunking: group things together (categorize)
  3. mnemonic devices
  4. Self-referencing: think how info relates to you personally
  5. spacing: spreading studying to shorter periods
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108
Q

habituation vs dishabituation

A

habituation: getting used to a stimulus
dishabituation: when you’re already used to a stimulus (tuning it out or sth) and something happens that makes youo notice it again
- Ex.) you ostart tuning out the neighbor’s music but then someone slams the door and you focus on that. Then b/c your hearing is peaked, you notice the music again

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109
Q

State-dependent memory

A

memory that depends on the state you processed it
- If you learn something drunk, you’ll remember the next time you’re drunk
- If you’re happy seeing an ad, next time you’re happy you think of the ad

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110
Q

Free recall vs cued recall

A

free: able to recall w/o cues
cued: need help w/ info retrieval
- need to hear “pl” to remember planet

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111
Q

Distal vs proximal stimuli

A

distal: the actual stimulus itself
proximal: stimulus “proximal” to our receptors
- In this sense, the stimulus has been made “close” to us, such as light getting its image put into our retina

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112
Q

Source monitoring error

A

memory error where source of the memory is wrongly attributed to another exp
- angry w/ someone but forgot it happened in a dream

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113
Q

Source monitoring error

A

memory error where source of the memory is wrongly attributed to another exp
- angry w/ someone but forgot it happened in a dream

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114
Q

flashbulb memories

A

highly vivid memories
- Still able to be reconstructed

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115
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

No new brain cells, memories form b/c connections b/w neurons get stronger

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116
Q

RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

A

new learning impairs old info recall
- issues thinking in retrospect

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117
Q

PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

A

past impairs future learning
- Issues thinking about the future

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118
Q

What memories stay stable as you age?

A

implicit memory, recognition

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119
Q

What memories improve as you age?

A

semantic memory (verbal skills), crystalized IQ (ability to use knowledge), emotional reasoning

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120
Q

What memories get worse as you age?

A

Recall, episodic memory (difficult to make new memories), processing speed, divided attention
- Prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)

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121
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

Forgetting so much that it interferes w/ normal life
- caused by excessive neuronal death
- buildup of amyloid plaque in the brain
- Sx’s include memory loss, attention, planning, semantic memory, abstract thinking

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122
Q

Korakoff syndrome

A

Damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion and memory loss
- lack of vitamin B1 due to malnutrition
- If found early it can be treated w/ proper diet and cognitive therapy

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123
Q

RETROGRADE AMNESIA

A

inability to remember things from the past

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124
Q

ANTERGOGRADE ANMESIA

A

inability to remember new things

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125
Q

Piaget theory of cognitive development

A

Children aren’t mini adults, but actively construct their view of the world

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126
Q

Piaget stages of development

A

Sensorimotor stage
- babies develop smell, hearing, touch and become active
- 0-2 years old
- children develop object permamence

Preoperational stage
- 2-7 years old
- no empathy, but begin to oengage in pretend play

Concrete operational stage
- 7-12 years ld
- kids learn empathy and pass the water conservation test

Formal operational stage
- 12+
- learn to do abstract moral reasoning and abstract consequences

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127
Q

Trial + error

A

poor means of problem solving but will work with enough time

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128
Q

Algorithm problem solving

A

logical prodecure of trying solutions until one works

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129
Q

Heuristics (problem solving)

A

mental shortcut to find solution
- Means end analysis: analyze problems and break it down to smaller problems
- Working backwards: start w/ goal and connect back to current

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130
Q

Intuition (problem solving)

A

Relying on instinct to solve problem
- Fixation: getting stuck on wrong approach
- Fixationc an cause the “aha” moment

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131
Q

Type I error

A

false positive
Ex.) + pregnancy test when you’re not pregnant

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132
Q

Type II error

A

false negative
Ex.) you’re actually pregnant even though test says no

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133
Q

Availability heuristic

A

using examples that come to mind (available) to solve a problem

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134
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

estimating the likelihood of sth happening based on our previous experiences w/ it
- Leads to the conjunction fallacy: if youo see the excepiton to the rule, you assume that it can happen for you
- think: “something like this happened to me before”

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135
Q

Biases that prevent correct decision making (3)

A
  1. Overconfidence
  2. belief perseverance: ignore disconcerning facts
  3. confirmaiton bias: seek out confirming facts
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136
Q

Framing effect

A

How you frame a situaiton affects what answer people will choose

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137
Q

Semantic networks

A

concepts are organized in the mind in terms of connected ideas
- Similar to how they’re stored in computers
- kinda like a schema

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138
Q

Spreading activation

A

When we think abooutt 1 concept, we think of all concepts related to it
- Allows for false memories, since we remember wrong info that is related

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139
Q

Spearman general intelligence theory

A

People who score well on 1 test tend tot score well on subsequent assessments
- People have a g factor that describes their overall smartness

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140
Q

3 intelligences theory

A
  1. analytical (academic)
  2. creative (generatte new ideas)
  3. practical (problem-solving)
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141
Q

Fluid vs crystallized intelligence

A
  • Fluid: ability to reason quickly and abstractly
  • Crystallized: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
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142
Q

Identical twins vs fraternal twins

A

Identical: come from the same zygote (hence why theyre almost exactly the same genetically)
Fraternal: 2 ovum were a part of a single menstural cycle that were both implanted by diff sperm
- Results in genetic differences

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143
Q

Fixed vs growth mindset

A

Fixed: intelligence is biologically set and un∆ing
Growth: intelligence is ∆able as you learn more

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144
Q

Gardner’s 8 intelligences

A
  1. Spatial: visualizing the world in 3D
  2. Naturalist: understanding living things and nature
  3. Musical: discernign pitch, timbre, etc
  4. Bodily/kinesthetic: coordinating body w/ mind
  5. Linguistic: finding the right words to express what you mean
  6. intra-personal: understanding youself and what you want
  7. interpersonal: sensing people’s feelings and emotions
  8. mathematical: quantifying things and proving hypotheses

I Love Beer So Much, a Liter Is Nothing

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145
Q

Behaviorist theory of language & cognition

A

language is condittioned behavior

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146
Q

Nativist (Chomsky) theory of languange & cognition

A

language is innate
- Children are born w/ mechanisms for learning language
- There is a critical period from 0-9 that children are most apt to learn a language

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147
Q

Materialist theory of language & cognition

A

look @ what happens in the brain when people think/speak/write

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148
Q

Interactionist (Vygotsky) theory of language & cognition

A

Interplay b/w env. cues and biology
- bio and social factors interact in order for kids to learn language
- The fact that kids want to interact with adults makes them want to learn language

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149
Q

Universalist theory of language & cognition

A

Thought determines language completely

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150
Q

Piaget theory of language & cognition

A

children think in certain ways and develop ways to describe these thoughts

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151
Q

Weak linguistic determinism

A

language influences thought (not a super huge effect)
- Ex) reading left —› right is how we imagine girl pushing boy

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152
Q

Strong linguistic determinism

A

Our language determines our whole cognitive processes
- Our language determines how we exp the world

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153
Q

Skinner learning theory (behaviorist approach)

A

Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning
- kids only acquire language through reinforcement

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154
Q

language processing occurs in the ____ hemisphere

A

left

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155
Q

Broca’s area

A

Resp for speech pdn
- Damage means we’re able to understand language but unable to communicate
- Found in frontal lobe

Broca = Production

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156
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Involved in understanding words
- Can hear words and repeat them back, but if damaged, they can’t understand what other say and their words don’t make sense
- Found in the temporal lobe

Wernicke = Understanding

157
Q

Global aphasia

A

both Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are damaged

158
Q

Agraphia

A

inability to write

159
Q

Anomia

A

Inability to name things

160
Q

Limbic system

A

Responsible for the storage/retrieval of memories (esp tied to emotions)
- Hippo wearing a HAT: Hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus

161
Q

Thalamus

A

sensory relay station: eth we consume via sensory input goes through here to correct station
- part of limbic system
- Note: smell goes to amygdala

162
Q

Hippocampus

A

Key role in formation of new memories
- Converts short term —› long term memory
- when damaged, we recall old memories but can’t make new ones

163
Q

Hypothalamus

A

regulates the ANS and endocrine system
- creates GnRH, GH, Dopamine, etc

164
Q

Left vs Right hemispheres of brain (mood)

A

R hemisphere: negative emotions
- Isolated kids have activity in R brain
L hemisphere: positive emotions
- Social kids have activity in L brain

165
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

responsibel for higher order f(x)s
- Ability to solve problems, make decisions, how we act in social situations

166
Q

Sympathetic nervous response

A
  • pupils dilate (get more light)
  • decrease in salivation; decrease digestion
  • inc. respiration and bpm (inc. O2 delivery to tissues)
  • adrenaline release
167
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • pupils constrict
  • de. respiration and bpm
  • inc. glucose storage
  • decrease adrenaline release, inc. acetylcholine release
  • inc. digestion
168
Q

3 components to emotion

A
  1. Physiological (in. HR, tense muscles)
  2. Cognitive (how a person perceives a situation varies from person to person)
  3. Behavioral (emotions bring about behaviors)
169
Q

Ekman’s 6 universal emotions

A
  1. happiness
  2. sadness
  3. fear
  4. disgust
  5. anger
  6. surprise

Think: “Inside out”

170
Q

James-Lange theory of emotion

A

emotion is due to perception of physiological responses
- Physiological —› emotion

171
Q

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

A

physiological responses and emotions occur simultaneously
- Physiological = Emotion

172
Q

Schacter-Singer theory of emotion

A

physiological and cognitive responses form emotion
- We don’t feel emotion until we’re able to ID reason for situation
- Physiological + cognitive —› emotion

173
Q

Lazarus theory of emotion

A

Experience w/ emotion depends on how situation is appraised
- Stimulus leads to appraisal which causes emotion + response
- Cognitive —› emotion + physiological

174
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

People who are moderately aroused perform the best

175
Q

Primary appraisal of stress

A

put stress into 3 categories: irrelevant, benign (positive), stressful (negative)
- If 1° appraisal is stressful, then move onto 2° appraisal

176
Q

Secondary appraisal of stress

A

if 1° assessment was stressful, this assessment is about answering if we are able to cope w/ the threat or deal w/ the stressor
- Appraisal fo the actual harm

177
Q

4 categories of stressors

A
  1. Significant life canges (death of loved one, losing job)
  2. Catastrophic events (natural disasters)
  3. daily hassles (long lines, forgetting car keys)
  4. ambient stressors (noise, crowding)
178
Q

Reticular activating system

A

works with ANS to Allow us to exp and understand our emotions
- Found in midbrain

179
Q

General adaptation syndrome (1-4)

A
  1. Alarm phase: stress kicks in (HR inc.)
  2. Resistance: fleeing, huddling, etc (lots of cortisol released)
  3. Recovery: stimulus is removed and we go back to homeostasis
  4. Exhaustion: if resistance isn’t followed by a recovery period, then tissue can become damaged
180
Q

Effects of chronic stress

A
  1. hypertension/vascular disease
  2. inc. cortisol can result in diabetes
  3. impotence
  4. autoimmune disease from inflammation
  5. atrophy of prefrontal cortex
181
Q

Learned helplessness

A

having control constantly ripped out of your hands leads to you learning that you don’t have control
- Leads to coping mechanisms to deal w/ this

182
Q

3 means of stress management

A
  1. Perceived control: higher control you perceive, less stress
  2. optimism: look on the bright side
  3. social support: helps us know we’re not alone
183
Q

How are neurotransmitters removed form the synaptic cleft? (3 ways)

A
184
Q

Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic NS (graph)

A

Sympathetic: pathetic b/c you’re stressed
Parasympathetic: paradise

185
Q

F(x)s of the nervous system (basic & higher)

A

Basic:
- Motor (control of skeletal muscles)
- Sensory
- Autonomic (reflexes)

Higher:
- cognition
- emotions
- consciousness (abstract thinking)

186
Q

Structure of NS

A

CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: eth else

187
Q

More myelin sheaths, ____ signal

A

faster signal

188
Q

Atrophy

A

wasting away of skeletal muscle

189
Q

Fasciculations

A

involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle

190
Q

Hypotonia

A

decreased muscle tone

191
Q

Hyporeflexia

A

decreased muscle stretch reflex

192
Q

White vs gray matter

A

White: myelinated axons
Gray: contains neuron cell bodies
Note: axons go down white matter

193
Q

Upper motor neurons

A

Control the LMN

194
Q

Lower motor neurons

A

control muscles of the limbs and trunk

195
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Motor, cognition

196
Q

Parietal lobe

A

sensation, spatial awareness

197
Q

Occipital lobe

A

vision processing

198
Q

Temporal lobe

A

sound and understanding the meaning of words

199
Q

Cerebellum

A

controls the fine tuning of motor control
- frontal lobe controls gross motor movement

200
Q

Corpus collosum

A

connects right and left brain

201
Q

Glutamate

A

excitatory nt

202
Q

GABA (brain) and glycine (spinal cord)

A

GABA: inhibitory nt of the CNS
- inhibits nerve transmission
- promotes sleep, relieves anxiety
Glycine: inhibitory nt of PNS

203
Q

acetylcholine

A

parasympathetic nt that binds postsynaptic nervous dendrites to get a signal sent down a nerve
- broken down by acetylcholinesterase
- needed for muscle contraction
- contracts smooth muscles
- dilates blood vessels
- slows heart rate and inc. digestion

204
Q

Serotonin

A

involved in feelings of happiness, calm and focus
- more involved in long term happiness (fulfillment)
- diminished in depressed people

205
Q

Dopamine

A

pleasure hormone involved in rewards and motivation
- instant gratification (Tinder match)

206
Q

CAT scan

A

severla X-rays that are put together to make a full body image to diagnose diseases

207
Q

EEG

A

see how stimulus can cause certain neural group to fire
- Ex) see how dopamine affects a tissue vs individual neurons

208
Q

MEG

A

better resolution that EEG

209
Q

MRI

A

use magnetic fields to generate images of organs in the body

210
Q

fMRI

A

used to measure and map brain activity through detecting ∆es in blood flow

211
Q

PET scans

A

inject glucose into cells and you can see what areas are more active @ a certain instance in time

212
Q

Schizophrenia

A

delusions, hallucinations, unusual physical behvaior and disorganized thinking

213
Q

epigenetics

A

∆es to gene expression outside of basic genetic code
- How environment affects genetics

213
Q

phenylketonia

A

built-up phenylalanine causes brain problems

214
Q

Innate behavioral traits (5)

A
  1. inherited: coded by DNA
  2. Intrinsic: present even if grown up in isolation
  3. stereotypic: performed the same way ea time
  4. Inflexible: not modded by exp
  5. Consummate: fully dev right away
215
Q

Learned behavioral traits (5)

A
  1. Non-inherited: acquired through observation
  2. Extrinsic: absent when growing up in isolation
  3. Permutable: ∆able
  4. Adaptable: can be modified due to ∆ing conditions
  5. Progressive: can be inproved w/ time
216
Q

Evolutionary theory of motivation

A

Instincts play a role in motivation
- basic needs must be met, therefore we have a desire to do things (eat, sleep, etc)

217
Q

Drive-reduction theory

A

need is a lack or deprivation that will energize us to reduce the arousal
- Drive will reduce the need

218
Q

Optimum arousal theory

A

We are driven to be fully aroused
- Why there are Tiktoks w/ Subway surfers under a video

219
Q

Maslow’s heirarcy of needs

A
  1. Physiological: food, water, breathing, sleep (needed to survive)
  2. Safety: health, access to resources, property
  3. Love: need to belong (social needs)
  4. Self-esteem: need to feel sense of fulfillment in achievement
  5. Self-actualizatin: person reaching maximum potential
220
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Reinforcement: keep doing same behavior (studying)
Punishment: stop behavior (crying)
Positive: reward (candy)
Negative: punishment (hit/electric shock)

Note: partial reinforcement makes response slow to acquire, but less likely to go extinct than a continuous reinforcement

221
Q

ABC model of attitude

A
  • affective: emotional
  • behavioral: how we act towards object
  • Cognitive: formation of thoughts and beliefs
    Ex) I am afraid of rollercoasters and think they are stupid, so I will be on the feris wheel.
  • Afraid: emotion, think they are stupid (cognition), I will be (behavioral)
222
Q

Theory of planned behavior

A

we consider the effects fo our actions before we act

223
Q

Prototype willingness model (6 factors)

A

behavior is f(x) of
1. past behavior
2. attitudes
3. subjective norms
4. intentions
5. willingness to engage in behavior
6. prototyping: thinking of doing it before hand

224
Q

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (3 factors)

A

focuses on how/why of persuasion
1. message characteristics: message itself, clarity
2. source characteristics: what is messenger’s level of expertise, truthworthiness
3. target characteristics: how susceptible listener is to be convinced, mood, self-esteem

225
Q

2 ways persuasion is processed

A

Central: depends on the quality of argument made by the persuader
Peripheral: superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues (ie. body language)

226
Q

Foot in door phenomenon

A

we have atendency to agree to small things first, then leads to us saying yes to bigger things

227
Q

role-playing

A

picture yourself in a new role until you start to actually feel like yourself in the new role

228
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

2 or more conflicting cognitions
- feelings of discomfort cause us to alter our beliefs/values

To reduce discomfort:
1. modify cognitions: maybe I should change for the better
2. trivilaize: make less important (evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer)
3. add: adding excuses (I work out so it doesn’t matter)
4. deny: denying facts (smoking and cancer are not linked)

229
Q

What is a Schema

A

Interconnected mental network that internalizes info about the world
- big ideas -> create smaller ideas -> create smaller ideas

230
Q

Psychoanalytic theory

A

personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts and past
- libido: motivation for survival
- death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors from unconscious wish to hurt others

231
Q
  • projection
  • reaction formation
  • regression
  • sublimation
A
  • projection: projecting feelings of inadequacy
  • reaction formation: defense mechanism where someone does the opposite of what they want/feel (no, no I really like it when you do that)
  • regression: def. mech. where someone regresses to childlike state
  • sublimation: def. mech. where unwanted impulses are channeled into something positive
232
Q

Id, Ego, Suprego

A
  • Id: demands immediate gratification (I’d tap that)
  • Ego: seeks long-term gratification
  • Superego: moral conscious that weighs Id and Ego
233
Q

Freudian slip

A

mental conflict
Ex.) financially stressed pt says “don’t give me any bills, I mean pills”

234
Q

Humanistic theory (Carl Rogers)

A

focuses on healthy personality development; humans are inherently good
- We are conscious, inherently good, and are self-motivated to improve

235
Q

Biological theory

A

components of personality are inhereted by genes

236
Q

Hans Eysenck’s extroversion level

A

how ouotgoing we are is a f(x) of how easily aroused we are
- introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less
- 3 dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism (emotional stability), psychotism (how far reality is distorted)

237
Q

social potency

A

degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations

238
Q

Is followership genetic? (biological theory of behavior)

A

tendency to follow authority is common in twins
- therefore, genetic

239
Q

temperment (biological theory of behavior)

A

innate disposition, our mood/activity level which is consistent throughout our life

240
Q

Behaviorist theory

A

personality is a pattern of learned behavior patterns due to environment
- Essentially the result of conditioning

241
Q

Pavlov’s classical conditioning

A

place neutral stim. w/ unconditional stim. to trigger involuntary response
- ringing bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating

242
Q

Personality Trait theory

A

personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior
- therefore person consistently behaves in certain ways

243
Q

surface vs source traits

A
  • surface traits: evident from a person’s behavior
  • source traits: factors underlying human personality

Think of the masks we wear around people, vs ourselves
- this is pretty much just front stage vs back stage

244
Q

(Allport) cardinal, central, 2° traits

A
  • cardinal: dominant traits, influence all our behaviors
  • central: traits that are less dominant than cardinal (honesty, shyness)
  • 2°: preferences and attitudes (love for modern art, eating meat)
245
Q

Big 5 personality traits

A
  1. openness (imagining vs practical)
  2. conscientiousness (discipline vs impulse)
  3. extroversion
  4. agreeableness (apppreciative vs unfriendly)
  5. neuroticism (emotionally stability)

OCEAN

246
Q

social cognitive theory

A

Knowledge acquisition is the result of observing others
- social interactions, social media

247
Q

4 factors for motivation

A

attnetion, memory, imitation, motivation
- AM I Motivated?

248
Q

Biological basis of schizophrenia

A

abmormal perceptions of reality - hallucinations, delusions
- cerebral cortex is dec. in size
- disf(x)al parts of cerebral cortex
- abnormally large inc. of dopamine

249
Q

biological basis of depression

A

feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest in activities
- dec. frontal lobe activity
- inc. activity of the limbic lobe

250
Q

biological basis of Alzheimer’s disease

A

loos of cognitive f(x)s, dec. in memory, normal motor f(x)s until later in the disease

251
Q

Biological basis of Parkinson’s disease

A

progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities
- includes tremors, abnormal walking, and poor balance
- Loss of only dopaminergic neurons

252
Q

conformity

A

peer pressure; tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms

253
Q

Normative vs informative influence

A
  1. informative influence: look to group for guidance when we don’t know what to do
  2. normative influence: even if you disagree, you do as the group says to avoid rejection
254
Q

group polarization

A

decision-making amplifies the original group opinion

255
Q

groupthink

A

maintaining harmony among group members is more important than careful analysis

256
Q

anomie

A

breakdown of social bonds b/w an individual and community

257
Q

internalization

A

idea/belief that has been integrated into our own values

258
Q

Milgram experience

A

study of the willingness of participants
- average Americans obey authorities that conflict w/ their morals

259
Q

just world phenomenon

A

good things happen to good people and vice-versa

260
Q

self-serving bias

A

we will ∆ our perceptions to maintain our self-esteem

261
Q

confabulation

A

creation of vivid but fake memories

262
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

believe that a person’s behavior is caused by their internal attributes, while ignoring their situational or social problems

263
Q

Zimbardo prison study

A

absolute power corrupts absolutely

264
Q

Factors that influence conformity (7)

A
  1. group size
  2. unanimity
  3. group status
  4. group cohesion
  5. observed behavior
  6. public response
  7. internal factors
265
Q

Bystander effect

A

when there are other people to help, no one takes action since they think someone else will

266
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

when people are around others, they feel less personal responsibilty (pretty much explains the bystander effect)

267
Q

deindividuation

A

person is more likely to act out when their identity if concealed
- also conceals their personal responsibility

268
Q

Social facilitation

A

the presence of others forces our dominant response to come out
- Ex.) if we practiced super hard for sth, then a crowd will lead us to perform well
- Also f(x)s for the reverse

269
Q

social loafing

A

when we’re in a group, we put forth less effort b/c our contributions aren’t evaluated

270
Q

agents of socialization

A
  1. family
  2. school
  3. peers
  4. mass media
271
Q

norms (4)

A

standards of what we think is acceptable
1. folkways: manners we are supposed to follow (opening a door for someone)
2. mores: behaviors based on morals/beliefs (trustworthyness)
3. laws: based on right/wrong and has formal consequences
4. taboos: every culture finds these violations wrong

272
Q

primary deviance

A

no big consequences to violating norms
- rxn to deviant behavior is mild
Ex.) lying about your GPA to someone

273
Q

secondary deviance

A

serious consequences if norms are violated
- characterized by very negative rxn

274
Q

social strain theory

A

How people react to constrains placed by society when they try to achieve goals
- person became the villain if pushed to deviancy

275
Q

habituation

A

person tunes out the stimulus

276
Q

sensitization

A

inc. responsiveness to a stimulus

277
Q

dishabituation

A

when previously conditioned stimulus is removed

278
Q

classical conditioning

A

learn to associate conditioned stimulus to a conditioned response
- ex.) condition a bell w/ presentation of food, so over the course fo time, you only need ring bell for dogs to begin salivating

279
Q

generalization

A

stimulus similar to one that is conditioned leads to a conditioned response

280
Q

shaping

A

successfully reinforce behaviors that lead to correct target behavior

281
Q

schedules of reinforcement
- fixed-ratio
- fixed-interval
- variable-ratio
- variable-interval

A
  • fixed ratio: reinforcement happens after fixed # of responses (5, 10, 15)
  • fixed-interval: reinforcement happens after same time b/w reinforcement
  • variable-ratio: reinforcement occurs after varying # of responses (3, 10, 14), Most powerful version (found in gambling)
  • variable-interval: varying amount of time b/w reinforcements
282
Q

Escape vs avoidance learning

A

escape: learn to get away from unpleasant stimulus
avoidance: learn to avoid stimulus altogether

283
Q

reciprocol determinism

A

a person’s behavior influences and is influenced by their env

284
Q

internal vs external locus of control

A

internal: it’s in my hands
external: it’s in fate’s hands

285
Q

ego depletion

A

self-control is a limited resource

286
Q

existential self

A

sense of being a distinct entity from others

287
Q

cetegorical self

A

awareness that although we’re seperate, we exist in the same world as others

288
Q

social identity theory

A

we adopt identity of a group while also comparing ourselves w/ others in the group

289
Q

Freud’s psychosexual development

A

1.) Oral stage (0-1): activity centered around the mouth, develop sense of trust and comfort
* issues lead to dependency or aggression

2.) Anal stage (1-2): centered around anus and ability for someone to develop idependence
* issues can lead to messiness

3.) Phallic stage (3-6): kids learn diff b/w girls and boys, child starts to identify with same-sex parent
* issues can lead to sexual dysf(x)

4.) Latent period (6-12): energy spent towards intellectual pursuits, develop social skills
5.) Genital stage (puberty): focus on sexual desires and the needs of others

Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

290
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial development

A
  1. (0-1) trust vs mistrust, if issue occurs here, learn to mistrust everyone; virtue is hope
  2. (1-2) autonomy vs shame, kid learns independence; virtue is independence
  3. (3-5) initiative vs guilt, kids learn to ask questions and play w/ others; virtue is sense of purpose in what they do and their choices
  4. (6-12) industry vs inferiority, kid tries to develop competence but if it’s stifled and they get no approval, then feels inferior; virtue is self-reliance
  5. (12-18) identity vs role confusion, transition fromo child to adult and how you situate into society; virtue is fidelity (seeing ourselves as unique)
  6. (20-40) intimacy vs isolation, try to find love in relationships; virtue is **comfort in relationships, **but avoidance leads to issues w/ intimacy
  7. (40-65) generativity vs stagnantion, once we’re settled down, families are @ the center of our lives, we are giving back to community; virtue is belonging
  8. (65+) integrity vs despair, contemplate life and may feel guilt about the past; virtue is wisdom
291
Q

Vygotsky sociocultural development

A

how does social interaction influence our cognition?
- social interactions b/w growing children and those around them lead to higher order learning

Higher order learning would be emotions, language

292
Q

zone of proximal development

A

region where growing happens; b/w what we already can do vs what we can’t do
- usually requires more knowledgeable other

293
Q

Kohlberg Moral development

A

development of moral compass happens in stages
- Pre-conventional (pre-adolescent)
1.) obedianece vs punishment - reasoning based upon physcial consequences of actions
2.) Individualism and exchange - there isn’t just 1 right view, people can have diff viewpoints
- conventional (adolescent)
3.) good boy/good girl - we conform for social praise
4.) Law and order - maintain social order w/ rules
- post-conventional (moral)
5.) social contract - there are times when rules are wrong
6.) universal ethical principle - people develop their own moral guidelines

294
Q

social behaviorism

A

mind and sense of self emerge through communicating w/ others
- pretty much the looking-glass self

295
Q

egocentrism

A

focus on our own world and don’t care about other people

296
Q

social behaviorism as a kid 3 stages

A

1.) perpatory stage: imitation
- imitate the behaviors of people we look up to

2.) play stage: become more aware of our social interactions
- shown when kids engage in pretend and act based on their perceived POV
- ex) playing as what they think a firefighter woudl be

3.) game stage: understand the attitudes/behaviors of others/society

297
Q

socialization

A

process where people learn attidutdees, behaviors and values expected by their culture/community

298
Q

looking glass self

A

person’s sense of self is negatively affected by others
- Oh that person def thinks I’m weird (he doesn’t even know you)

299
Q

attribution theory

A

explain the behaviors of other people by…
1. using our knowledge to explain their behavior
2. analyzing factors in their env

When we analyze our own behaviors, we typically attribute our behavior to external factors

300
Q

optimism bias

A

bad things happen to others but not us
- We are more likely to update a belief if info is positive

301
Q

covariation model (3 components)

A

how we make inferences about why we and other people behave the way we do
1. consistency
2. distinctiveness
3. consensus

Ex.) flaky friend who cancels all the time. Consistent behavior over time.
Ex.) one day Jim goes off the rails and yells at us. He’s usually level-headed so this is distinct behavior.
Ex.) If we arrive late to meeting, but so de 20 other people, then high degree of consensus.

302
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

we see other people doing things due to their internal attributes, but under-recognize their situation/social reality
- this is shown in the actor-observer bias

303
Q

actor-observer bias

A

we are victims of circumstance, but other people do things b/c of who they are
- Example of fundamental attribution error

304
Q

stereotype threat

A

self-evaluating fear that we will perform according to a negative stereotype

305
Q

frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

frustration can lead to prejudice
- especially common for people who are deprived

306
Q

social vs self-stigma

A

social stigma: extreme diaspproval of individual by society
self stigma: individual can internalize their negative stereotypes

307
Q

primacy vs recency bias

A

primacy bias: emphasis placed on 1st actions/performances (ex. first impressions)
recency bias: emphasis based on recent actions/performances (ex. but what have you done for me lately?)

308
Q

Halo effect and reverse-halo effect

A

halo effect: 1 trait is being used to judge a whole person
- physicla ttractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive traits

reverse halo effect: we take 1 judgement about someone and apply it to their whole personality (hallo effect but negative)
- ex.) woman who cuts me off while driving must be a terribel driver and a bad mother

309
Q

people interpret sound in the Left or Right brain?

A

Most people conduct language comprehension and pdn in the LEFT brain

310
Q

Ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism

A

Ethnocentrism: judging someone else’s culture through the lens of your own
cultural relativism: judge and understand a culture from w/in that culture

311
Q

in vs out group

A

in group - who we are connected w/
out group - group we’re not associated w/

312
Q

group favoritism vs out group derogation

A

group favoritism: we favor people in our own group but are neutral towards outsiders
out group derogation: only like our group and discriminate against outsiders

313
Q

mere exposure effect

A

repeated exposure to novel people inc. our liking of them

314
Q

perceived similarity

A

over time hanging out w/ someone, our interests become more aligned

315
Q

similarity bias vs projection bias

A

similarity bias: we won’t befriend people who are diff from us
projection bias: assume everyone shares the same beliefs as us

316
Q

false consensus

A

assume everyone agrees w/ us even if they don’t

317
Q

Harlow monkey experiment

A

found that monkey babies will forgo even food over comfort
- preferred the embrace of a cloth sillhouette of a mother over chicken-wire b/c it provided greater comfort
- when they were coddled by the cloth mother they still attemped to stay in the embrace and feed from a bottle
- showed they were unwilling to part from the “mother”

318
Q

Mary Ainsworth strange situation theory of children

A
  • secure children were okay to explore when parent was in the room but when parent left, they were distressed, butt were calmed down when parent returned
  • insecure children clinged to mother thorughout the experiment and didn’t explore; when mother left, they freaked out and it didn’t get better wven when she came back
  • avoidant children ignored mother @ all times (yeesh)
319
Q

reinforcement modeling

A

agression can be the result of positive reinforcement
- if a child throws a tantrum and then gets what they want, then they will continue to throw tantrums

320
Q

deindividuatiion

A

loss of individuality and personal responsibility when you become part of a group

321
Q

kin selection

A

people act more altruistically to people they’re related to

322
Q

cost signalling

A

people are more likely to trust people that have helped others in the past

323
Q

ascribed vs achieved status

A

ascribed status: status you can’t ∆ from birth
achieved status: status you earn/achieve for yourself

324
Q

role strain

A

cannot carry all obligations that are inhehrent in 1 status

325
Q

front stage vs back stage

A

front stage: hwo people are ina social setting, around others
- people ∆ how they are seen in order to make friends

back stage: how people are in their private lives
- where we actually feel like ourselves

326
Q

impression management

A

how we balance all our front stages

327
Q

prejudice vs discrimination

A

prejudice: attitudes
discimination: diff treatment (action)

328
Q

Diff types of organizations (3)

A
  1. utilitarian organization: members are paid/rewarded for their efforts
  2. Normative organizations: members come together through their shared goals (not paid or monetarily compensated)
  3. Coercive organization: members don’t have a choice about membership (prison)
329
Q

iron rule of oligarchy

A

even the most democratic organizations will eventually become a bureaucracy ruled by a few
- this is b/c people in power don’t want to give it up

330
Q

McDonaldization

A

principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability and contol will dominate eth

331
Q

5 components of bureaucracy

A
  1. division of labor: people are trained too do specific things (but begin to become disconnected from the product)
  2. heirarchy of organization: people are supervised (can deprive people of decision making)
  3. written rules and regulations: people have clear rules to abide by (stifles creativity)
  4. impersonality: peope do thir jobs in an unbiased manner (discourages loyalty)
  5. merit-based employment: hiring is based on ability (can cause people to not be ambitious since they’ll only remain where they’re competent)
332
Q

mating strategies (3 types)

A
  1. random mating w/ no preferences
  2. assortative mating (similarity mating) where individuals w/ similar traits end up mating together
  3. non-assortative mating (opposites attract) where individuals mate w/ those who have diverse traits
333
Q

evolutionary game theory

A

those w/ best fit to env will survive to pass on genes/behavior to offspring

334
Q

macrosociology

A

large scale persepective emphasizing big phenomena affect a big portion of pop

335
Q

microsociology

A

face-to-face intxns
- analysis of society where you look at how individual intxns affect larger groups

336
Q

hidden curriculum

A

we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, treat our peers
- essentially learn how to obey rules
- We begin to internalize social inequalities, esp how girls and boys are treated diff

337
Q

Religious organizations by size (3)

A
  1. ecclesia: dominant religion that is followed by the majority of population
  2. sects: smaller religious groups made in protest of larger group (ex. early Lutherans)
  3. cults: small and radical groups that reject outside society
338
Q

medicalization

A

conditions that were considered normal are now seen as medical conditions

339
Q

sick role

A

expectation that society will allow us to take a break from our responsibilities when we get sick

340
Q

Functionalism

A

Look at society from a large-scale perspective and how each part helps t keep society stable
- society is always heading to equilibrium
- ∆ to pdn will force us to shift and adapt, but we will find new equilibrium

Social ∆ threatens equilibrium which is why there is resistance, which is why institutions eventually ∆ to maintain their interdependence

Small societies are held together by their similarities, big societies allow people to become interdependent

341
Q

social facts

A

ways of thinking that are formed by society
- existed before us and will exist after us

342
Q

conflict theory

A

inequalities exist due to differences in power held by diff social groups
- thesis: how things are; maintained by people in power
- antithesis: how people want to ∆ the way things are; held by those being oppressed

struggle b/w thesis and antithesis leads to compromise and synthesis of a new state

343
Q

weak vs strong social construcitonism

A

weak social constructionism: things exist b/c they are, regardless of our acknowledgement
- weakly agree w/ social constructionism

strong social constructionism: reality is due to our shared acknowledgement that it is real
- based upon our language and social habits

344
Q

symbolic interactionism

A

focus on small interxns b/w individuals
- soceity is made up of the typical everyday intxns b/w people

Meaning is a huge part of how people live and interact
- we give meaning to things and act specially towards those thhings

345
Q

3 tenents of symbolic intractionism

A
  1. we act based upon meaning we’ve given to sth
  2. diff people assign diff meanings to things
  3. meaning we give to sth isn’t permanent
346
Q

feminist theory

A

looks @ women’s social role sin educaiton, family, workforce
- women face discrimination, objectification, oppression, stereotyping

347
Q

rational choice theory

A

eth somebody does is due to them being fundamentally rational and they weigh costs and benefits
- people act in self-interest and do things to meet their goals

348
Q

Exchange theory

A

applying rational choice theory to social intxns
- intxns are based on people weighing rewards and punishments of ea action
- behavior can be understood w/in intxn when you understand that people will try to maximize their profits/rewards

349
Q

Social theories overview
- functionalism
- conflict theory
- social constructionism
- symbolic interactionism
- feminist theory
- rational choice theory
- exchange theory

A
  • functionalism: society exists over time b/c it always tries to maintain equilibrium, institutions remain constant (eth has a f(x) in society)
  • conflict theory: how societies ∆ over time through conflict b/w thesis and antithesis
  • social constructionism: society exists b/c of the collective mind of society; things have value b/c society agrees it has value
  • symbolic interactionism: emphasis on individual and how they behave; things have meaning b/c people give meaning to things
  • feminist theory: focus on gender inequalities brought about by evil men
  • rational choice theory: people always take rational actions, weighing cost and benefit of ea action
  • exchange theory: applying RCT to interactions (family, work, etc); people behave to maximize their rewards
350
Q

life-course theory

A

aging is a predictable social, psychological, and biological process that begins from birth and ends @ death

351
Q

age stratification theory

A

age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

352
Q

continuity theory

A

people try to maintain same basic structure through their lives

353
Q

Race vs ethnicity

A

Race: socially determined category based on physical differences
Ethnicity: socially determined category base don diff in cultures/languages/religion/nationality
- pluralism encourages multiple racial and ethnic variations

354
Q

assimilation

A

person’s culture comes to resemble that of another group

355
Q

cognitive schema

A

pattern of thought that organizes categories of info and relationships b/w them
- allows us to set expectations about ourselves and others

356
Q

gender script

A

info regarding how we’re supposed to act based on our gender

357
Q

gentrifictation

A
  1. rich people move in to poor neighborhood
  2. investment in the property will up their property value
  3. eventually poor people cannot afford to live there so they have to end up moving
358
Q

5 stages of demographic transition

A
  1. high birth rates & high death rates
  2. advancement in tech allows for death rates to dec.
  3. birth rates begin to decline b/c having many children doesn’t give huge benefit
  4. population stabilizes
  5. this model occurs everywhere causing the world population to stabilize
359
Q

globalization

A

Exchanging of culture, money, products b/w countries
- no country is ever fully independent

360
Q

World-systems theory

A
  • core: USA and West Europe (completely autonomous)
  • periphery: Latin america and Africa (poor states)
  • semi-periphery: East Europe, India (semi autonomous)
361
Q

Modernization theory

A

all countries follow a similar path of dev into modern society

362
Q

mass society theory

A

skepticism about groups
- they only form b/c people seek refuge from main society

363
Q

relative deprivation theory

A

people form groups b/c they are deprived of certain rights that others enjoy

364
Q

3 components needed for social movement

A
  1. relative deprivation
  2. people think they deserve better
  3. conventional methods of improvement are useless
365
Q

resource mobilization theory

A

focus on how factors can help/hinder a social movement
- what people need to get a social revolution going: money, media, pol. influence

366
Q

what is culture?

A

way of life shared by a group of individuals consisting of shared beliefs and values
- also provide rules and instructions w/in a society that teach people how to live
- ideas are ttransmissable b/w generations

367
Q

subculture

A

community that distinguishes itself from main society
- just large enough to support someone for their whole life
- ex.) Mormons

368
Q

microculture

A

very small, niche community
- not large enough to support someone their whole life, so it’s only a temporary part of their life
- ex.) Furries

369
Q

Caste system

A

very llittle social mobility
- you are born into your social station

370
Q

class system

A

some degree of social mobility
- movement is often the result of education

371
Q

meritocracy

A

social position is due only to ability and achievement

372
Q

absolute poverty

A

absolute level of financial power, where going below it will threaten your survival

373
Q

relative poverty

A

% below the median income of a country
- you are poor in the USA but rich in Africa

374
Q

social reproduction

A

genrational social/financial status gets transmitted to subsequent generations

375
Q

social vs cultural capital

A
  • social capital: building of reliable social networks
  • cultural capital: knowledge, education and skills that you have independent of social groups (street smarts)
376
Q

index of dissimilarity

A

0 is total segregation, 100 is perfect integration

377
Q

3 issues that arise from residential segregation

A
  1. political isolaiton: segregated communities have ittle political power
  2. linguistic segregation: isolated communitties develop their own means of communication/slang
  3. spatial mismatch: opportunities for poor people in segregated communities are away from people who need them
378
Q

class consciousness

A

workers realize they have solidarity w/ ea other

379
Q

false consciousness

A

workers don’t recognize their collective power, while also not understanding that they’re oppressed

380
Q

cross-sectional study

A

looks @ diff group of people @ the same time

381
Q

cohort study

A

follow a cohort (group of people w/ similar characteristic) over their lifetimes
- people exposed to same drug, mutation

382
Q

longitudinal study

A

data gathered from same subjects repeatedly over a period of time

383
Q

case-control study

A

2 groups of differing outcomes are analyzed to find a causal factor

384
Q

clinical trial

A

highly controlled study where effects of medical or behavioral interventions are studied

385
Q

randomized controlled trial

A

people studied randomly are given a treatment (1 w/ treatment and 1 with placebo) to see if treatment has any effect

386
Q

neural plasticity

A

ability of the nervous system to modify itself f(x)ly and structurally in response to exp or injury

387
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

participants will ∆ behavior when they know they’re being observed

388
Q

self-serving bias

A

our success is due to innate characteristics, but failure is due to situation

MCAT P/S (1 decks)

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