P1 YEAR Flashcards
(163 cards)
1
Q
What is the Primary Structure in Proteins?
Definition
A
Oligopeptide sequnce, planar due to bond character in resonance structure
2
Q
What is the Secondary Structure in Proteins?
Definition
A
Polypeptides arrange into secondary structures and are sequence dependent, form spontaneously, and are formed and stablized by hydrogen bonding
3
Q
What are the components in a Secondary Structure?
A
- Alpha Helix
- Beta Sheet
- Beta Turns
4
Q
What is an Alpha Helix?
Definition
A
Forms by hydrogen bonding between carbonyl oxygen and n+4 amino hydrogen
5
Q
What is a Beta Sheet?
Definition
A
Stabilized through hydrogen bonding between adjacent strands (may be parallel or antiparallel)
6
Q
What is a Beta Turn?
Definition
A
Cause a 180 degree turn in the polypeptide backbone stabilized by hydrogen bonding between 1st and 4th residue of the turn often include PROLINE and GLYCINE
7
Q
What is a Type 1 Beta Turn?
Definition
A
PROLINE lots of steric hindrance
8
Q
What is a Type 2 Beta Turn?
Definition
A
GLYCINE rotational freedom
9
Q
What is the Tertiary Structure of a Protein?
Definition
A
Form by assembly of secondary structures, it may form a recognizable pattern
Motif
10
Q
What is the Quaternary Structure of a Protein?
Definition
A
Composed of two or more polypeptide chains, peptides making up multimer may be either identical or nonidentical will often have an axis symmetry
ex. collagen
11
Q
What is the Active Site of an Enzyme?
Definition
A
A specific region on an enzyme where the substance are bound
12
Q
List the Properties of the Active Site on an Enzyme
A
- Small part of total volume of enzyme
- Bound to substrates via multiple weak, reverible attractions such as hydrophobic interactions, ionic interactions, hydrogen bond
13
Q
List the Macronutrients
A
- Proteins
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
14
Q
Define Protein
Definition
A
Provide essential nitrogen, carbons, electrons as well as essential amino acids that body cannot synthesize
15
Q
Define Carbohydrates
Definition
A
Carbons and Electrons, no essential carbs
16
Q
Define Lipids
Definition
A
Carbons, electrons, and essential lipids that the body cannot synthesize
17
Q
What pathway is this: Carbohydrates to Glucose?
A
Central Pathway: Glycolysis leading to produce Acetyl CoA
18
Q
What pathway is this: Proteins to Amino Acids?
A
Amino Acids can also lead to Acetyl CoA
Precursor to producing glucose
19
Q
What pathway is this: Fats to Glyceral/Fatty Acids?
A
Beta Oxidation also leads to Acetyl CoA
Glycerol: precursor to producing glucose
20
Q
Why is Acetyl CoA is so important?
A
Acetyl CoA goes through Krebs Cycle/ETC to produce CO2, H2O, and ATP
21
Q
List Membrane Properties
Definition
A
- Dynamic and Flexible
- Can exist in various phases/transitions
- NOT permeable to large polar solutes or ions
- Permeable to SMALL polar solutes and nonpolar compounds
22
Q
Depending on their compositions/temperature, the lipid bilayer can exist in what TWO phases?
A
- Gel Phase
- Fluid Phase
23
Q
What is the Gel Phase?
Definition
A
Liquid ORDERED State: individual molecules do NOT move around
24
Q
What is the Fluid Phase?
Definition
A
Liquid DISORDERED State: individual molecules CAN move around
25
Membrane Fluidity: is determined mainly by fatty acid compositon and melting point, more fluid membranes require what?
SHORTER and MORE UNsaturated fatty acids
26
Melting Temperature DECREASES as what?
Double Bonds are ADDED
| At lower temps, cells need more unsaturaed FA
27
Melting Temperatues INCREASES with what?
LENGTH of SATURATED fatty acids
| At higher temps, cells need more long, saturated FA
28
What is Lateral Diffusion?
| Definition
1. Indiviudal lipids undergo fast uncatalyzed later diffusion within the layer
2. Lipids can move around laterally
29
What is Transverse Diffusion?
| Definition
1. Spontaneous flips from one layer to another are rare because the charged head group must transverse the hydrophobic tail region of the membrane
2. Flipases
30
What are Flipases?
| Definition
1. Special enzymes that catalyze the transverse diffusion
2. Unique unidirectional and bidirectional enzymes to catalyze lipid movement
3. Some flipases use energy of ATP to move lipids against the concentration gradient
31
DEA Numbers
| Definition
2 Letters followed by 7 Numbers
32
How to CHECK a DEA Number?
1. Add numbers #1, 3, 5 together
2. Add numbers #2, 4, 6 together and multiply by 2
3. Add the first and second calculated number together and make sure that matches the last digit
33
Superscription
| Definition
Take Thou
34
Inscription
| Definition
Drug Name and Strength
35
Subscription
| Definition
Directions to the Pharmacist
36
Sigma
| Definition
Directions to the Patient
37
NDC Numbers
| NON-INSURANCE
10 Digit
1st Seg = Labeler Code
2nd Seg = Product Code
3rd Seg = Package Code
38
NDC Numbers
| INSURANCE
11-Digit
5-4-2 format
39
DAW Codes 0-2
0: no product selection
1: substitution not allowed by provider
2: substitution allowed, patient requested product dispensed
40
1 Dram = what?
Teaspoon = 5 mL
41
1 oz = what?
30 g = 30 mL
42
16 oz = what?
1 pint = 1 pound = 480 grams
43
Tablespoon = what?
15 mL
44
1 grain = what?
60 mg
45
What is Down-Regulation?
| Definition
Response of a system to DECREASE the response of the cell due to excessive stimulation by an agonist.
The response can be due to decreased number of recepetors or uncoupling of the receptor from the sign transduction mechanism or both.
Involved in mechanisms of TOLERANCE
46
What is Up-Regulation?
| Definition
The response of a system to increase the response of the cell to a LACK of stimulation by an AGONIST.
The response can be due to either anincrease in receptor number of enhanced coupling of the receptor to the signal transuciton or both.
Involved in mechanisms of SUPERSENSTIVITY
47
What is Cranial Nerve I?
Olfactory Nerve
| ONLY sensory/afferent, goes to olfactory bulb/cortical area
48
What is Cranial Nerve II?
Optic Nerve
| ONLY sensory
49
How does the Optic Nerve II work to transmit?
1. Photoreceptors in the retina transmit visual info to the bipolar cells in the retina.
2. Bipolar cells synpase on ganglion cells which have their cells bodines in the retina
3. Axons of ganglion cells leave the eyeball and form optic nerves
4. Eyeball to Optic Chiasm
5. Optic Chaism to Brain
50
Bipolar Cells
| Definition
Primary Sensory Neurons
| Do not fire impulses, send info via GRADED signal changes
51
Ganglion Cells
| Definition
Secondary sensory neurons
52
Eyeball to Optic Chiasm
| Definition
Optic Nerve
| X Shaped Structure
53
Optic Chiasm to Brain
| Definition
Optic Tract
| Posterior diencephalon synapse on lateral GENICULATE nucleus of thalamus
54
What is Optic Nerve III?
Oculomotor Nerve
| Innervates eye muscles, motor AND sensory
55
Where is the nucleus of the Oculomoter Nerve III?
Exits from the midbrain, nucleus is in the ROSTRAL MIDBRAIN
56
What type of innervations are possible with Cranial Nerve III?
1. Medial Rectus: adduction toward the nose
2. Inferor Rectus + Superior Oblique: moves eye down
3. Superior Rectus + Inferior Oblique: moves eye up
57
What is Cranial Nerve IV?
Trochlear Nerve
| Motor and Sensory
58
Where is the nucleus of Trochlear Nerve IV?
Nucleus is in the CAUDAL part of MIDBRAIN
| Innervates SUPERIOR OBLIQUE
59
What Cranial Nerve is the ONLY one to exit DORSALLY?
Trochlear Nerve IV
60
What is Cranial Nerve V?
Trigeminal Nerve
| Sensory FACE and Motor CHEWING
61
The Trigeminal Nerve V arises from the pons and then the trigeminal ganglion, what are the 3 Divisions of the nerve that leave the ganglion?
1. Opthalmic V1: SENSORY
2. Maxillary V2: SENSORY
3. Mandibular: SENSORY AND MOTOR
62
What is the ONLY structure in the CNS that uses electrical synapses and not chemical?
Trigeminal Mesencephalic Nucleus
63
What is Cranial Nerve VI?
Abducens Nerve
| Motor and Sensory
## Footnote
CAUDAL Pons
64
What is Cranial Nerve VII?
Facial Nerve
| Motor, Sensory, and PNS
65
What elements does Facial Nerve VI control?
1. Motor: facial expression
2. PNS: salivary and lacrimal glands
3. Sensory: skin of ear, taste buds
66
What is Cranial Nerve VIII?
Vestibulocochlear Nerve
| ONLY sensory
## Footnote
Pontomedullary Junction
67
What is Cranial Nerve IX?
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
| Motor, Sensory, and PNS
68
What elements does Glosspharyngeal Nerve IX control?
1. Motor: pharynx
2. PNS: parotid gland
3. Sensory: baroreceptors, BP, O2, taste
69
What is Cranial Nerve X?
Vagus Nerve
| Motor, Sensory, and PNS
70
What are elements of Vagus Nerve X?
1. Exits Medulla
2. Majority of PNS: heart/organs
71
What is Cranial Nerve XI?
Spinal Accessory Nerve
| ONLY SOMATIC MOTOR - neck muscles
72
What is Cranial Nerve XII?
Hypoglossal Nerve
| ONLY SOMATIC MOTOR - tongue
73
Depolarization of Hair Cells
| HEARING
1. K+ enters the cell = DEPOLARIZATION
2. Sterocilia (in hair cells) K+ channels and tip links connect stereocilia
3. Stereocilia bend towards the TALLEST stereocilia aka the tension of the tip length INCREASES = OPEN K+ channels
4. Depolarization causes Ca2+ to enter which releases glutamate
74
Repolarization of Hair Cells
| HEARING
1. If stereocilia bends towards the SHORTER stereocilia, there is LESS tension and the K+ channels CLOSE
2. K+ remains inside = REPOLARIZATION
75
Perilymph in HAIR cells has what concentration gradient?
HIGH Na+ and LOW K+
76
Endolymph in HAIR Cells has what concentration gradient?
| Stereocilia area
LOW Na+ and HIGH K+
77
What are the 3 Phases of the Uterine Cycle?
1. Proliferative Phase
2. Secretory Phase
3. Menstrual Phase
78
Proliferative Phase has what hormone actions?
| Time from the end of menses to ovulation
1. Increase ESTROGEN levels = stimulate growth and development of endometrium
2. INDUCE PROGESTERONE receptors needed for secretory phase
79
Secretory Phase has what hormone actions?
| Between ovulation and menstruation onset
1. INCREASED PROGESTERON = maturation of endometrial, stimulate glandular secretion, inhibit myometrial contractions
| suitable environment for implantation and embryo
80
Menstrual Phase has what hormone actions?
1. FALL in ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE
2. Causes PROSTAGLANDIN production = smooth muscle contraction (cramps, endometrium sloughing)
81
When does Glucose appear in the Urine?
| MECHANISM
1. When the concentration of glucose in the filtrate increases, the cotransporters are saturated and cannot absorb = DECREASED reabsorption and INCREASED filtered glucose
2. Glucose stays in the PROXIMAL tubule due to saturation = excretion
3. Reabsorption STOPS = Increased Excretion
82
What are the THREE forms of Carbon Dioxide CO2 Transport in the blood?
1. Dissolved CO2 in Plasma
2. Bound CO2 = hemoglobin RBC
3. Chemically Modified CO2 = MOST IMPORTANT aka conversion of CO2 to BICARBONAYE VIA CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
83
What is the MAJOR and MOST important factor of CO2 transport in the blood?
Plasma Bicarbonate
84
Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT
PV = (W/MW) x RT
85
Combined Gas Law
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
PV/T = k
86
Gibbs Free Energy
G = nRT (ln(a2/a1))
87
What 5 Excipients are used as Tonicity Agents?
1. Dextrose
2. Glycerin
3. Mannitol
4. Potassium Chloride
5. Sodium Chloride
88
Wetting Agents
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to disperse solids in continuous liquid phase
89
Flocculating Agents
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to floc the drug particles
90
Thickeners/Viscosity Modifiers
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to increase the viscosity of suspension
91
Buffers pH
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to stabilize the suspension to a desired pH range
92
Colorants, Flavors, Sweeteners
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to impart desired color and taste to suspension, improve elegance
| glucose, sucrose, sorbital, peppermint oil, saccharin
93
Preservative
| Defintion: Excipients
Added to prevent microbial growth
94
What are the most commonly used excipients in capsules/tablets?
1. Lactose
2. Sucrose
3. Calcium Sulfate
4. Di-Calcium Phosphate
5. Starch
6. Magnesium Stearate
95
What is pKa?
Refers to the pH at which the charged and uncharged forms of a molecule are present in an equal proportion
96
Henderson-Hasselbach Weak Acids
pH = pKa + log [salt]/[acid]
Acid = UNionized
Salt = IONized
97
Henderson-Hasselbach Weak Base
pH = pKa + log [base]/[salt]
98
Titration of Weak Acid w/ Strong Base
Equivalence Point = acid is completely neutralized with base
Half Equivalence Point = [acid] = [salt] aka pH = pKa
99
When does Maximum Buffer Capacity occur?
pH = pKa
aka choose a buffer with a pKa value close to the desired pH
100
List the 5 basic components of the Medication Use Process
1. Prescribing
2. Transcribing and Documenting
3. Dispensing
4. Administering
5. Monitoring
101
Liophilicity
| Definition
The ability of drug molecule to interact with and cross lipid bilayer
| PASSIVE diffusion
Nonpolar + Polar Regions
102
What are the factors controlling Drug Absorption?
1. Solubility of Drug
2. Dissolution Rate
3. Concentration
4. Circulation at the Site of Absorption
5. Surface Area of Absorbing Site
103
Pros/Cons: Oral Route
| Administration
1. Most common, preferred, safest
2. Small Intestine = major site of absorption due to large surface area
3. First-Pass Efect
104
Pros/Cons: Buccal/Sublingual Route
| Administration
1. Quick absorption --> transcellular diffusion
2. Avoids first pass metabolism
3. Unsuitable for bitter tasting drugs
105
Pros/Cons: Rectal Route
| Administration
1. Limited Absorption: low surface area
2. Great for peds
3. Avoids first-pass
4. Slow, incomplete, irregular absorption
5. Irritation of rectal mucosa
106
Pros/Cons: Parenteral Routes
| Administration
SQ: slow absorption, prolonged action
IM: most common, rapid absorption
IV: most rapid, danger
107
Pros/Cons: Transdermal Route
| Administration
1. Facilitated by carriers and devices
2. Constant delivery of drug
3. Slow process, long term therapy
108
Pros/Cons: Nasal Route
| Administration
1. Rapid absorption
2. Limited surface area
3. Limited dose
4. Damage to nasal lining with long term use
109
Pros/Cons: Pulmonary Route
| Administration
1. Absorption is passive diffusion
2. Particles less than 5um preferred
3. Must reach terminal bronchioles and alveoli
4. Retention and Clearance problematic
110
List the Phase I Reactions
| Chemical Reaction, Non-Synthetic
1. Oxidations
2. Reductions
3. Hydrolses
111
Oxidation Reactions
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase I
Catalyzing Enzymes:
1. P450
2. Flavin Monnoxygenase
3. Amine Oxidase
4. Dehydrogenations
112
Reduction Reactions
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase I
1. Relative uncommon pathway for drug mettabolism
2. Yield active or toxic metabolites
3. Introduce hydroxyl and amine groups
4. SOA: microsomal and cytosolic enzymes
113
Hydrolyses Reactions
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase I
1. Epoxide Hydrolase: gets ride of epoxide produced from oxidation
2. Esterases: converting ester prodrugs (SOA: all over the body)
3. Peptide Hydrolase
4. Lactone
114
Phase I Reactions introduces or exposes one the reactive groups onto the xenobiotic, list the possible reactive growups
1. Hydroxyl -OH
2. Amino -NH2
3. Carboxyl -COOH
4. Sulfhydryl -SH
| causes increased reactivity and hydrophilicity
115
List the Phase II Reactions
| Conjugations, Group Transfer
1. Glucuronidation
2. Sulfation
3. Glutathione
4. Amino Acid Conjugation
5. Acetylation
6. Methylation
116
Glucuronidation Reactions
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase II
1. MAJOR reaction and strongly INCREASES water solubility
2. Enzyme: Glucuronosyltransferase UGT
3. Co-Factor: UDP-Glucuronic Acid GA
4. Precursor: Glucose -- abundant making it the MOST common reaction
117
What is the most important endogenous substrate for UGT?
| Phase II
Bilirubin
118
Sulfation Reaction
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase II
1. Enzyme: Sulfotransferases SULs
2. Co-Factor: PAPS
3. Cojugating Agent: Sulfate Group
4. Target Groups: Phenols, Alcohols, and Amines
119
What is PAPS and why is it important in APAP metabolism?
3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-Phosphosulfate
PAPS is depleted in APAP overdose and causes hepatotoxicity
120
Glutathione Conjugation Reaction
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase II
1. Enzyme: Glutathione S-Transferases GSTs
2. Co-Factor: Glutathione
3. Conjugatinge Agent: Glutathione GSH
4. Target Groups: Electrophic Functions Grooups
5. Depleted GSH in APAP overdose leads to hepatotoxicity
121
Acetylation Reaction
| Associated Elements
## Footnote
Phase II
1. Enzyme: N-Acetyltransferases NATs, Cytosolic Enzymes
2. Co-Factor: Acetyl Coenzyme A
3. Target Groups: Aromatic AMines and Alcohols
122
Acetylation of what may lead to hepatotoxicity?
Isoniazid INH
123
Alpha 1 Receptor
| Important Elements
Antagonist: Prazosin
G Protein: Galphaq
Effects: Increase IP3 and DAG
EXCITATORY
124
Alpha 2 Receptor
| Important Elements
Antagonist: Yohimbine
G Protein: Galphai
Effects: Decrease cAMP
Inhibit Sympathetic
125
What is the antagonist for Alpha 2b/c type receptors?
Prazosin
126
B Receptors
| Important Elements
Antagonist: Propranolol
G Protein: Galphas
Effects: increase cAMP common to all
127
Beta 1 Receptor
| Important Elements
Antagonist: Betaxolol
Location: Heart, Juxtaglomerular Apparatus JGA of the Kidney
Stimulated by: NE potentially innervated
128
Beta 2 Receptor
| Important Elements
Antagonist: Butoxamine
Vasodilation, reduction of BP, relaxation of smooth muscle
Non-Innervated Receptors: NE from bloodstream
129
Beta 3 Receptor
| Important Elements
Location: Adipose Tissue
Function: not clear
Med: Mirabegron (Myrbetriq)
130
Histamine
| Components
1. Communicated between cells through interacting with receptors on the outside
2. Blasts a signalling response to severe cells
3. Rapidly metabolized
131
What are the multiple effects of histamine and how is this possible?
1. Inflammation
2. Anaphylaxis
3. Gastric Acid Secretion
4. Neurotransmission
5. Possible through four different histamine receptors located in different tissues
132
What are drugs Inducing Immunity?
Vaccines and Passive Antibodies
133
What are drugs Inhibiting Immunity?
Immunosuppressive agents
134
What are drugs that Modify Immunity or Related Responses?
Cytokines, Anti-Inflammatories
135
What are drugs Helping the Immune System?
Anti-Infectives or Antineoplastics
136
What are drugs to Evaluate Immunity or Antigens?
Immunodiagnostics
137
TH1 Cytokine
| Elements
Secrete: IL2, IFNy, IL12, and TNFB
Stimulate: cell mediated responses, bacterial killing, Ig class switch
Block: function of TH2 cells
138
IFNy Cytokine
| Elements
Enahnces: macrophages, PMH, cytotoxic activity
Proinflammatory
139
TH2 Cytokine
| Elements
Mediate Anti-Parastitic Immunity
Promote IgE class switch
Block TH1 and Th17
140
Th17 - IL17 Cytokine
| Elements
Mycobaterial/Fungal surveillance, allergy, and autoimmune disease
141
TReg Cytokine
| Elements
TGFB and IL10
Promote mucosal immunity
142
What interleukin is secreted by various antigen presenting cells and most cell types?
| Similar to TNFa, proinflammatory
Interleukin I
143
Which Interleukin is produced by Th1 and other T cells that promotes T cell proliferation?
| Supports T cell growth, enhances NK cytotoxic activity
Interleukin 2
144
Which Interleukin is produced primarily by TH2, TReg, and M2 and is Anti-Inflammatory?
| Performs TH2 stuff
Interleukin 10
145
Which Interleukin is the Prototypical TH2 cytokine and induced Ig class switch to IgG?
| Stimulates mast cell growth of TH2
Interleukin 4
146
What are the 4 main types of Infectious Disease?
1. Toxigenic
2. Extracellular
3. Facultative
4. Intracellular
147
Toxigenic Infection
| Exotoxin solube protein secreted by bacteria outside the bacterial cell
1. Diptheria, Tetanus
2. Leads to Septic Shock
148
What cytokines are involved in Septic Shock?
1. IL-1beta
2. TNF-alpha
149
What are protective mechanisms in Toxigenic Infection?
1. IgM Bacteriolysins
2. IgG Anti-Capsular Antibody
3. IgM Antibody for Lipid A
150
Extracellular Infection
| Most susceptible to curent anti-infectives
1. Antiphagocytic Capsule: importat virulence factor for bacteria
2. Acute Inflammatory Response: IL-8 Chemokine attrachs NK cells
151
Faculative Intraceullar Infection
| Mycobacteria
1. Resistant to NK killing
2. Monocyte involvement
3. Efferent Phase: cell mediated immunity
152
Obligate Intracellular Inffection
| Viruses
1. Interfern type 1 is major nonspecific defense
2. CD8+ cytoxic T cells most important for recovery
3. IgA and/or IgG prevent reinfection
153
What are the Classifications of Immunodeficiency?
1. Primary: congenital developmental defects
2. Secondary: acquired disorders (viral, neoplasm, lifestyle)
154
Primary or Inherited Immunodeficiency
| TYPES
1. Aspienia
2. C3 Deficiency: complement
3. Chronic Granulomatous Disease: phagocyte function
4. MBL Deficiency: opsonization, phagocytosis
5. SCID: T and B cell
155
Secondary or Acquired Immunodeficiency
| TYPES
1. Viral: HIV, measles
2. Neoplasm: leukemia, lymphoma
3. Lifestyle: alcohol abuse
4. Trauma: burns
5. Latrogenic: drugs, allograft
156
List the 4 Types of Ointment Bases
1. Oleaginous Base
2. Absorption Base
3. Water Removable Base (Oil in Water)
4. Water Soluble Base
157
List and Classify Oleginous Bases
1. Emollient
2. White Petrolatum
3. White Ointment
4. Yellow Ointment
158
List and Classify Absorption Bases
1. Incorporate small volume of aqueous solutions in hydrocarbon base
2. Hydrophilic Petrolatum aka Aquaphor
159
List and Classify Water Removable Bases
1. Easily washed from skin
2. Creams
3. Sodium Lauryl Sulfate + White Petrolatium + Methylparaben
160
List and Classify Water Soluble Bases
1. Do NOT contain oleaginous component
2. Greaseless
3. PEG Ointment
161
What should be avoided in Suppository formulation since it enhances degradation of oleaginous bases?
Water
162
What is a suspending agent that can be added to suppositories to decrease the drug settling out?
Silica Gel
163
What can be added to delay the release of drugs suppositories by forming a gel that delays dissolution?
1. Methylcellulose
2. Alginic Acid
