P2: Studies Flashcards
(13 cards)
Describe the Methodology of Milgram’s Study: Behavioural Study of Obedience.
This study was a controlled observation that took place in a laboratory setting at Yale University. The sample consisted of 40 males, aged 20-50, varying in occupation and education levels (participants varied from engineers to people who didn’t finish high school). The men believed they were participating in a study of memory and learning were payed $4.50 each.
Describe the Procedure of Milgram’s Study: Behavioural Study of Obedience.
The participants for this study were sampled using a volunteer sampling technique, in which participants responded to an advert in a newspaper.
The participants had been told the observation was a study on memory and were told that hey would be payed the $4.50 regardless of whether they completed the study or not.
- Naive participants were introduced to another participant, Mr Wallace (a confederate). Participants drew slips to decide who would play the role of the teacher and learner (naive Participants always ended up as the teacher as the draw was rigged)
- Immediately after the draw, the teacher and learner were taken to an adjacent room and the learner was strapped to an ‘electric chair’.
- The teacher was then taken to an adjoining room which had a shock machine in. The shock machine had 30 switches starting at ‘slight shock’ (15 volts) all the way up to ‘XXX’ (450 volts). The ‘experimenter’ (another confederate, dressed in a lab coat) gave the teacher a sample shock to demonstrate that the machine was real. The experimenter remained in the same room as the teacher (participant).
- Instructions were given to the teacher to give shocks to the learner each time they got a question wrong, increasing the voltage each time.
- Milgram had previously told the ‘experimenter’ to respond to any hesitation shown by the teacher with one of four verbal prods: ‘Please continue,’ ‘The experiment requires you to continue,’ ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue’ and ‘You have no other choice, you must go on.’ Similarly, if the teacher showed concern over the wellbeing of the learner they were told ‘The wellbeing of the learner is none of your concern.’
- The highest level of shock administered was then recorded, applying a quantitative value to the participants obedience levels.
- After the experiment, the teacher was fully debriefed on the true aims of the study and were reunited with the ‘leaner.’
- All participants were then interviewed on their experiences.
Describe the Findings and Conclusions of Milgrams study: Behavioural Study of Obedience.
Findings:
Before the study, Milgram questioned a group of Psychology majors owho estimated only 0-3% of participants would administer the full 450v shocks.
The findings of the study state that 65% of participants administered the full 450v, 35% having stopped between 300-450v.
There were a number of signs of extreme nervousness displayed by 14 participants. These were things such as:
* nervous laughter and smiling
* sweating
* stuttering
* biting their lip
* digging their fingernails into their flesh.
Three participants had full blown uncontrollable seizures.
Conclusions:
The study concluded that the situation a person is in can influence obedience levels. Therefore, obedience isn’t just about disposition but is also influenced by perceived authority, setting and consensus.
Evaluate the Methodology of Milgrams study: Behavioural Study of Obedience.
(essay plan)
+ Variation in participants occupations and education levels. In this study, participants occupations varied from office clerks, to engineers to poeple who haven’t graduated highschool. The sample is therefore more representative of the target population as a whole because obedience levels between occupations could vary (eg. an office clerk may be more likely to comply as they respond to perceived authority in their day-to-day life, whereas other individuals may be less used to complying). Increases the population validity.
+ Controlled observation conducted in a laboratory at Yale University. In a variation of the original study, Milgram (1974) conducted a similar experiment, however, in this experiment, Milgram moved the experiment from the prestigious, highly-controlled lab at Yale to a run-down office in Connecticut. Despite following the same procedure, results found that the participants obedience levels dropped by 18% compared to obedience levels in the original study. This therefore suggests that by carrying out the research in this highly controlled lab environment, not only was Milgram able to full control/limit extraneous variable but the prestigious environment of Yale University also influenced the participants likelihood to respond to perceived authority, increasing ecological validity.
- Gender bias. Sample consisted of 40 males, aged 20-50. Decreases the population validity of the study as the findings are not generalisable to the female members of the target population.
- Cultural bias. The participants sample of this study consisted of 40, American males, mainly from New Haven, Connecticut. This could be argued to have a potential influence on results as Western societies often emphasise individuality and a persons right to autonomy. This could be argued to also decrease population validity as results may not be generalisable to individuals of other cultures (such as Collectivist cultures, emphasising group harmony and respect for authority). Decreased population validity.
Evaluate the procedure of Milgram’s study: Behavioural Study of Obedience
(essay plan)
+ The humanisation of the ‘learner.’ Before the ‘shocking’ began, the participants were introduced to the confederate playing the learner, ‘Mr Wallace’ and were shown him being strapped to the fake electric chair - which researchers had taken care to make look authentic. By adding a visual component to the teachers perception of the shocks, this increases the authenticity of their reactions. Increasing the ecological validity.
+ The use of a Volunteer sampling method. Participants for this study were all self-selected after responding to an advertisement in a local New Haven newspaper. By having participants volunteer themselves to partake in the study, the likelihood of participants conforming to the authority is increased as they may feel more obligated to see the study through. This is further supported by the fact that participants were payed £4.50 upon entering the lab. Increasing ecological validity.
- Risk of demand characteristics. In Milgram’s study, participants were asked to administer fake electric shocks to another person (a confederate) when they gave incorrect answers. The perceived authority figure (the experimenter, also a confederate) gave verbal prompts to encourage continuation (e.g., “Please continue,” “The experiment requires that you continue”) and was told to remain stoic throughout the observation. The artificial nature of the procedure poses the potential risk of participants guessing the true aims of the study and exhibiting demand characteristics. Decreasing the internal validity.
- Further potential risk of demand characteristics. In this study, participants were told to ‘randomly’ select a role - of either the ‘teacher’ or the ‘learner’ - from a draw they did not know was rigged. This is a potential weakness of the study as it runs the risk that the participant, or the ‘teacher,’ may realise that the draw was rigged (eg. via unconscious cues, such as body language) and therefore act differently in their role as the ‘teacher,’ decreasing the internal validity.
Evaluate the ethics of Milgram’s study: Behavioural Study of Obedience.
(essay plan)
- Prominent risk of psychological harm. By tricking the participant into believing they were inflicting serious physical pain onto another person, this could cause extreme emotional disturbance to the participant in that moment. The qualitative results of this study showed many signs of emotional distress in participants during the fake shocks, such as sweating, stuttering, digging nails into flesh, etc.
Furthermore, physical harm was indirectly inflicted on some participants of this study, as the emotional distress cause them to have uncontrollable seizures. This decreases the ethical virtue of the study.
+ The debrief. After the research was completed, the participant was reunited with the learner, shown they were safe, and were informed of the true aims of the study. This is a strength as an element of distress may have been relieved and the participants can gain a thorough understanding of the research they partook in, potentially decreasing the inflicted of psychological harm.
Describe the Methodology of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
Initially, Kohlberg’s study consisted of 75 American boys between the ages of 10-16. This longitudinal study followed the boys until they were 22-28yrs old. Additional samples were also taken from other countries - Great Britain, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico and Turkey - were also interviewed to gain a
cross-cultural comparison.
Describe the Procedure of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
Kohlberg presented each child with nine hypothetical moral dilemmas. For example, one scenario posed participants was the ‘Heinz Dilemma’ in which a man must decide whether to steal a drug to save his dying wife, even though he cannot afford it. They were each asked to separately decipher what they believed the moral course of action to be. Each dilemma involved a conflict between two moral issues. After discussing the issues as a group, the children were then asked a series of open ended questions in a semi-structured interview to establish their moral beliefs. For example, ‘Should Heinz steal the drug?’ ‘Does Heinz have a duty or obligation to steal the drug?’ ‘Is it important for people to do everything they can to save another’s life?’
Kohlberg then analysed the children’s responses for similarities which led to a stage theory being constructed. Each boy was they re-interviewed every three years.
Describe the Findings of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development identifies how individuals progress in their moral reasoning through a structured series of three levels, each containing two distinct stages, making a total of six stages. In the Pre-conventional Level, typical of young children, morality is externally controlled. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation involves doing what is right to avoid punishment. Stage 2: Hedonistic orientation involves doing what is right for your own personal gain (e.g. Rewards). The Conventional Level, common in adolescents and many adults, reflects a deeper concern for social rules and others’ approval. Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance orientation involves doing what is ‘right’ according to the majority, to be seen as good. Stage 4: Law and order orientation focuses on obeying laws and fulfilling duties to maintain social order. The Post-conventional Level, which fewer people reach, involves more abstract and principled reasoning. Stage 5: Social Contract and logistic orientation involves doing what you personally deem is right, even if it’s against social convention or law. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles orientation represents the highest stage, where moral reasoning is guided by internalized universal principles of justice, equality, and human rights, even if they conflict with laws or rules. Kohlberg’s findings emphasise that moral development is closely tied to cognitive development and progresses with age and reasoning ability.
Cross-cultural findings showed that, regardless of culture, children progressed through the same stages of moral development, however there were differences in how quickly they progressed. In America, children progressed through the stages quicker through the stages than other cultures. Additionally, children in the middle class were found to develop quicker than lower-classes and there was no difference in development amongst different religions.
Describe the conclusions of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
Kohlberg concluded that the identified stages of development were universal. All people, regardless of culture, class or religion progressed through the same stages in the same order - the only difference is the speed through which they progress. Each new stage represents a more equilibrated form of moral understanding which results in a more logically consistent and morally mature form of understanding.
Additionally, the study concluded moral discussion classes can help children develop their moral thinking, for example, discussions with children at stages 3 and 4 result in the child moving forwards.
Evaluate the Methodology of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
+ Longitudinal study. Studied 75 American boys, between the ages of 10-16. The study followed them until they were 22-28, posing them with various ethical dilemmas and interviews every three years. By studying the same group of participants over a long period of time, rather than recording findings from various age groups, this could minimise the impact of participant variables on findings (such as differences in personality). Increased internal validity as there is more valid data to draw conclusions from.
+ Cross-cultural comparisons. Initially, Kohlberg’s study consisted of 75 American boys, posing them with various ethical dilemmas and interviews every three years. Additional samples were also taken from other countries - Great Britain, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico and Turkey and interviewed to gain a cross-cultural understanding. Study was able to establish a broader view of moral development, eliminating the risk of ethnocentrism impacting the study’s validity. Increased population validity.
- Sample only consisted of men. Kohlberg initially theorised that women would get stuck at stage 3 of the moral development stages (Interpersonal concordance orientation), as they primarily focus on developing a well-functioning family and appearing as ‘good’ to their family and friends, while men are more likely to move onto more ‘abstract’ principles. However, Kohlberg’s theory has been criticised for being ‘excessively androcentric’ and misogynistic and not accurately representing female moral development. Therefore the population validity is decreased.
- Use of a semi-structured interview (self-report method)
Evaluate the Procedure of Kohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
+ Collection of qualitative data over quantitative data. Kohlberg presented each participant with nine moral dilemmas, asked them to discuss these, then recorded how they would approach the dilemma through a semi-structured interview. By using semi-structured interviews and presenting participants with moral dilemmas (e.g., the Heinz dilemma), Kohlberg could explore the justification participants used, going beyond a simple yes/no answer. Establishing detail findings, leading to clear establishment of moral stages of development. Increase in internal validity.
+ Use of semi-structured interviews. This allowed Kohlberg to present each of the participants with the same with the same moral dilemmas, ensuring consistency in results, while researchers could still deviate to gain a deeper understanding of moral reasoning. For example, in the presenting of the Heinz dilemma, all participants were asked what they believed they would do in the situation, additionally participants were asked ‘Should Heinz steal the drug?’ ‘Does Heinz have a duty or obligation to steal the drug?’ ‘Is it important for people to do everything they can to save another’s life?’ Allowed for both standardisation and flexibility in questioning to establish in-depth data. Increased internal validity.
- Scenarios not based on real life. Participants were presented with nine hypothetical moral dilemmas. For example, one scenario posed participants was the ‘Heinz Dilemma’ in which a man must decide whether to steal a drug to save his dying wife, even though he cannot afford it. Each participant was then asked to decipher what they believe the moral course of action would be. Dilemma was not centred in reality and therefore may not accurately reflect participants behaviour in real life. For example, in the Heinz dilemma a participant who has never experienced loss of a loved one may respond differently to one who has. Lacks ecological validity.
- Risk of social desirability bias. Research was conducted as a series of semi-structured interviews in which participants were given an ethical dilemma and were asked to separately discuss their views. Some participants may have altered their answer as to their moral beliefs to ‘fit in’ with the rest of the group. In published results of this study, Kohlberg concluded that moral discussion classes can help children develop their moral thinking, for example, discussions with children at stages 3 and 4 often resulted in the child moving forwards. This could be argued as evidence of risk of social desirability bias. Decreased internal validity.
Evaluate the Ethics of Hohlberg’s study: The Child as a Moral Philosopher.
+ Rights to confidentiality. In official publications of the study, there is no evidence of participants personal information (including names and any other identifying information). Participants were only referred to as ‘code numbers or general descriptions, such as ‘a 13-year-old boy from Chicago’ protecting their personal identities. Anonymity may protect participants from judgment over their moral reasonings therefore encouraging honest answers. Prevented psychological harm (stress).
- Potential risk for stress caused to participants. Some of the moral dilemmas presented to participants (such as the Heinz dilemma, involving life-or-death situations) may have caused emotional distress in some participants, especially in younger participants, by making them confront difficult and stressful moral dilemmas. Additionally, as the moral discussions were performed in groups, some participants may have felt pressured to appear morally wiser to other participants. Could cause psychological harm.
