Packet 1 (Quiz 1) Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
define ataxia
A
without/no coordination
2
Q
What is etiology?
A
-why a disease occurs
-theory for the cause of disease
-scientific focus of disease
3
Q
What are some causes of high BP?
A
-smoking
-lack of exercise
-stress
-diet high in salt or fat
4
Q
What is pathogenesis?
A
-how a disease develops
-the development of disease or disorder and the chain of events or steps leading to the disease or disorder
5
Q
What is morphology?
A
changes in the gross or microscopic appearance of cells and tissues including shape, structure, size, and form
6
Q
What neurotransmitter is produced by substania nigra?
A
dopamine
7
Q
Damage to the substantia nigra will cause what disease?
A
Parkinsons
8
Q
What is hemiballismus?
A
L sub-thalamic nucleus damage would result in R side motor issues in the arm, leg, or both
R sub-thalamic nucleus damage would result in L side motor issues
9
Q
What is clinical expression?
A
-multiple signs and symptoms
-what you see is what you get/have
-involving or relating the signs and symptoms seen in various pathologies
-the first detectable sign or symptom of a particular disease
10
Q
What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (basal ganglia disorder)?
A
-bradykinesia (slow movement)
-muscle rigidity/stiffness
-resting tremor
-decreased blink rate
11
Q
Which part of the brain works together with the basal ganglia to control our movements?
A
cerebellum
12
Q
What are the 3 components of the basal ganglia?
A
1) substantia nigra
2) sub-thalamic nucleus
3) caudate nucleus
13
Q
A damaged sub-thalamic nucleus would cause?
A
hemiballismus
14
Q
A damaged caudate nucleus would cause?
A
Huntington’s disease
15
Q
Huntington’s disease shows up around 30-40 y/o and will result in apoptosis of caudate nucleus and cause mental decline. Huntington’s disease is genetic. How?
A
due to 39+ CAG repeats (39 is the golden number for someone to not get HD)
so bc its genetic, theres a 50% chance to pass onto kids
16
Q
All diseases have to have 4 things. What are they?
A
1) etiology
2) pathogenesis
3) morphology
4) clinical expression
17
Q
T/F: everyone has the Huntington’s gene
A
true
18
Q
What is pathology?
A
defined as the study of nature, effects, causes and consequences of disease
19
Q
path/o= ?
A
disease or suffering
20
Q
What is micropathology?
A
The branch of pathology dealing with the microscopic study of changes that occur in tissues and cells during disease
21
Q
What is histopathology?
A
-the study of changes in tissues caused by disease
-changes from normal in both cells and cellular products
-seen with light microscopy
22
Q
What is histochemistry?
A
-the identification and distribution of the chemical constituents of tissues by means of stains, indicators, and microscopy
-involves techniques for staining and demonstrating different inclusions within cells
-many stains were developed empirically by trial and error
23
Q
What is the sudan black stain used for?
A
fat, fat will stain black
24
Q
What is the prussian blue stain used for?
A
hemosiderin (stains hemoglobin breakdown products blue)
25
When are antigens stained?
for immunofluorescence
26
define symptom and give an example
test q
abnormality noted by the patient and is subjective
ex: stomach hurts, headache, etc
27
define sign and give an example
test q
abnormality noted by an observer, something that can be observed or measured (objective)
ex: temp., vomit, blood pressure, etc
28
MRIs are used to see what?
soft tissue
29
What is a lesion?
anything that is abnormal (latin for injury)
-the term is generally used for structural changes but can be functional also
-wound or injury (ulcer, abscess, tumor, sores, cataracts)
-pathologic changes in tissues
-one of the individual points or patches of a multifocal disease (ex: MS has patches of demyelination in the CNS)
30
What are some examples of lesions?
-plaques from fluoride (fluorosis)
-brain lesion (damage to any part of the brain due to disease, trauma, birth defects, etc)
-tuberculosis (TB, lung lesion)
-space occupying lesion (SOL, a lesion with a definite volume and structure which may encroach on nearby structures like a disc herniation)
31
What are biochemical lesions?
-any biochemical change, such as the absence or inactivation of an enzyme that diminishes the fitness of an organism or leads to a pathological condition
-example: PKU/phenylketonuria is an inborn error of metabolism (IEM) that results in decreased metabolism of the AA phenylalanine. Untreated PKU can lead to brain damage, intellectual disabilities, behavioral symptoms, or seizures. All 50 states require newborn birth screenings. Phenylalanine is found in aspartame which is found in all diet beverages, mountain dew, and anything sugar free
32
What does pathognomonic mean?
-sign or symptom on which a diagnosis can be made
-1 key sign or symptom
examples: KNOW THESE EXAMPLES
-measles can be easily diagnosed with Koplik spots (clustered white lesions in the mouth)
-lyme disease with a bulls eye rash (can still have lyme disease w/o rash)
-purpura lesions (platelet destruction or malfunction) due to blood clotting disorders, vit C def, aspirin, steroids, rocky mountain spotted fever, systemic lupus erythematous, HIV, or hep C
33
Purpuric lesions are discoloration of the skin or mucous membranes due to hemorrhage from small blood vessels. What are the 3 types of purpuric lesions?
1) petechia
-tiny red, pink, or purple dots/small patches just under the skin
-smaller than 2 mm and usually flat
2) purpura
-small red, pink, or purple patches just under the skin
-larger than 2 mm and can usually be felt due to inflammation of the blood vessels
3) ecchymosis
-purple, black, or blue patch under the skin
-larger than 1 cm
-basically fancy term for bruise
34
What is the most elementary form of microscope and is usually used with compound microscope?
light/bright field microscope
34
What are the 3 main branches of microscopy?
1) optical- light field, dark field, phase contrast, fluorescent, and immunofluorescent
2) electron
3) scanning probe
35
Which microscope is this?
-specimen is dark and contrasted by the surrounding bright viewing field
-visible light is passed through a specimen
-lenses reflect the light resulting in magnification
-can be used to view fixed or live specimens
-since many organic specimens are transparent or opaque, staining is used
light/bright field microscope
36
Fuchsin is used to stain....
smooth muscle cells
37
Methylene blue is used to stain....
cell nuclei
38
Zeihl Neelsen stain (uses both fuchsin and methylene blue) and is used to stain....
acid fast organisms like TB
39
Gram stain is used on....
bacteria (it gives rise to the name gram pos or gram neg bacteria based on the bacterias reaction to the stain)
40
Which microscope is used to observe live spirochetes such as those that cause syphilis (Treponema pallidum)?
Test q
dark field microscope
41
Which microscope is this?
-contains a special condenser that scatters light and causes it to reflect off the specimen at an angle
-a light object is seen on a dark background
-no dyes or stains are used since staining kills specimens
dark field microscope
42
Which microscope is this?
-optical contrast technique used for making unstained objects (ex: flat cells) visible under a microscope
-cells which appear inconspicuous and transparent in bright field can be viewed in high contrast and rich detail in phase contrast
-this microscope contains special condensers that throw light "out of phase" and cause it to pass through the object at different speeds
-live, unstained organisms and internal cell parts such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and the golgi body can be seen clearly
phase contrast microscope
43
Which microscope is this?
-uses UV light
-when UV light hits the object, it excites the objects electrons and they give off light in various colors
-since UV light is used, the resolution of the object increases
fluorescent microscopy
(immuno-fluorescent testing is similar- it is also called fluorescent-antibody technique and employs fluorescent dyes and antibodies to help identify unknown bacteria)
44
fluorescent treponemal antibody (FTA) is for what bacterial disease?
syphilis
45
fluorescent antinuclear antibody (FANA), also known as anti-nuclear antibody (ANA), is for what autoimmune disorders?
Test q
note: this is important for boards
-most commonly for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE/lupus)
-rheumatoid arthritis
-scleroderma
-sjogren's
46
Lupus can affect the joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, brain, heart and lungs. These periodically get worse, especially with heat, and are called "flare-ups" and then improve. The body produces antibodies which attack its own cells and tissues. What are the symptoms?
-extreme fatigue
-joint pain
-swelling
-butterfly rash
-fever
47
The immune system (B cells) makes proteins called antibodies (Ab) which recognizes and fights infectious organisms in the body. When an Ab recognizes the foreign proteins of an infectious organism, it recruits other proteins. This cascade of attack is called....
inflammation
48
Sometimes Abs make a mistake and recognize a normal, naturally occurring protein in our body as foreign and dangerous. These are called ________________ because they start the cascade of inflammation which causes the body to attack itself
autoantibodies
49
The Ab that targets "normal" proteins within a nucleus of a cell are called _______________________
antinuclear antibodies (ANA)
50
T/F: Most of us have small amounts of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) but large amounts of ANA indicate autoimmune disease
TRUE
51
How does the antinuclear antibodies (ANA) test work?
note: this is important for boards
-a blood sample is taken from a patient
-the blood is then mixed and incubated with a known ANA antigen
-if the patient's blood contains antinuclear antibodies (ANAs), an antigen-antibody complex forms
-in order to visually see the Ag-Ab complex, it is then incubated with a fluorescent tag which binds to Ag-Ab complex and illuminates when visualized under a fluorescent microscope
-a positive ANA test often indicates an autoimmune disorder, it will tell you that you have inflammation but not why/from what
52
What are the 2 processes occurring in immuno-fluorescence testing?
1) specificity between the Ag-Ab binding particles
2) contrast gets amplified by the fluorescence
53
How does immuno-fluorescence work?
-antibodies are molecules having high specificity for interaction with microbial antigens= 1 Ab will combine/react with 1 Ag
-A fluorescent dye can be linked or tagged with the antibody (conjugation)
-used for slow growing bacteria such as Bordetella pertussis, chlamydia, and legionella
54
Which microscope is this?
-used for obtaining high resolution images of biological and non-biological specimens
-used to research detailed structures of tissue, cells, organelles, and macromolecular complexes
-electrons are used to illuminate structures
-these images provide key info on the structural basis of cell function and of cell disease
electron microscope
55
What are the 2 types of electron microscopes?
1) transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
2) scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
56
What is a transmission electron microscope (TEM) used for?
view thin specimens like tissue sections or molecules through which electrons can pass generating a projection image
57
What is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) used for?
used to look at the surface of a specimen
58
What are the 3 steps for examining tissue by microscopy?
1) obtain tissue samples
2) prepare tissue samples
3) stain tissue samples
59
There are 2 main methods to obtain tissue samples. What are they?
1) biopsy
2) autopsy/necropsy
60
What is a biopsy?
collect tissue sample from a living organism
61
What is an incisional biopsy?
remove a small sample of tissue
62
What is an excisional biopsy?
remove entire lump or suspicious area
63
What is a needle biopsy?
sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle
64
bi/o= ?
life
65
necr/o =?
death
66
aut/o=?
self
67
What is an autopsy or necropsy?
-examination of an organism after death
-performed post-mortem to determine the cause of death
-autopsy is a term used for humans
-necropsy is a term used for animals
68
There are 2 ways to prepare tissue samples. What are they?
1) frozen sections
2) paraffin sections (infiltrate the specimen with wax to allow thin sections to be cut from it)
69
A _________ is a device used to preserve frozen tissue samples while a ___________ cuts the tissue into slices thin enough to be observed under a microscope
Test q
cryostat, microtome (mounted in the cryostat)
70
What are the advantages of frozen tissue sections?
note: theres 4 advantages
1) fast, takes 2-3 min
2) does not remove lipids like paraffin sections
3) enzymes can stay active
4) proteins stay so antigens/immunoglobulins can be studied
71
What are the 6 paraffin tissue section preparation steps?
test q, know the jist
1) fixation (specimen is placed in a liquid fixing agent for 6-24 hours, formalin is a formaldehyde solution that is the most commonly used, and it penetrates the tissue causing it to harden and protect the tissue)
2) dehydration (water must be removed, so the specimen is immersed in a series of ethanol (alcohol) solutions before it can be infiltrated with wax (hydrophobic)
3) clearing (a solvent will displace the ethanol in the tissue and then be displaced by molten paraffin wax, xylene is a commonly used solvent)
4) wax infiltration (specimens are infiltrated with molten paraffin wax with various additives such as polyethylene, and the wax is cooled to become solid)
5) embedding (once infiltrated with wax, the specimen is formed into a "block" which can be clamped into the microtome for section cutting
6) sectioning (thin slices of the specimen are cut with a myotome)
72
What are the advantages of paraffin tissue sections?
note: theres 4 advantages
1) stops all cell processes
2) preserves specimen for months
3) inhibits enzyme activity
4) many cell components are insoluble
73
staining tissue samples is commonly used to diagnose or locate what?
tumors
74
What is the most commonly used nuclear stain?
hematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E stain)
-hematoxylin is a blue, basic dye that complexes with nucleic acids (DNA and RNA in the nucleus and RNA in cytoplasm) or other negatively charged molecules
-nuclei stain blue
-structures that bind hematoxylin are basophilic (base loving)
-eosin is a red, acidic dye which stains membranes and most proteins
-cytoplasmic structures such as macrophages, vesicles with lysosomes, collagen, elastin, actin stain pink-red
-structures that bind eosin are eosinophilic or acidophilic
75
Which stain stains chromatic (nucleus) blue-black and cytoplasm pink-red?
hematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E stain)
76
What stain is this?
-2nd most common stain
-used to demonstrate glycogen primarily
-any carb converts to aldehydes and then stains
-ex: von Gierke's glycogen storage disease
Schiff-McManus (PAS: periodic acid-schiff rxn)
77
What is von Gierke's glycogen storage disease?
-hepatic form of glycogen storage
-lacks glucose 6 phosphatase
-this interferes with correct storage of glycogen and prevents it from being broken down to glucose
-complications= enlarged liver and hypoglycemia
78
Fat stains red with....
scarlet red (frozen section)
79
Fat stains black with....
osmic acid (paraffin section) or Sudan III/sudan black (frozen section)
80
Wright's stain is used for what?
blood cells (eosin and methylene blue are used)
81
The human body is formed from the division of a single cell following the union of 2 cells: sperm and ovum. As __________ continues, daughter cells exhibit altered structure and function which leads to differentiation and maturation
mitosis
82
Bacteria like rickettsiae are prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
prokaryotic
83
plants and animals are prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
eukaryotic
84
Ectoderm is the outermost germ layer. What does it give rise to?
test q
-integumentary system including hair, nails, and epidermis
-epithelia of the nose, mouth, eye, nervous system, and inner ear
85
Mesoderm is the middle germ layer. What does it give rise to?
test q
-musculoskeletal system
-circulatory system
-most of the excretory system
-gonads
-muscular and connective tissue in the digestive and respiratory system
86
Endoderm is the inner germ layer. What does it give rise to?
test q
-epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts including the lungs
-pancreas
-thyroid
-bladder
-urinary tracts
-parts of the liver
87
What are the 4 primary types of animal tissues?
1) epithelial
2) connective
3) muscle
4) nervous
88
What is the function of all simple epithelium?
to secrete and absorb something
89
What is the function of all stratified epithelium?
protect against abrasion
90
What does connective tissue originate from?
mesoderm which gives rise to mesenchyme and then connective tissue (and also blood vessels and lymphatic tissue)
91
How are epithelium and connective tissue different?
location, but also epithelial tissue has cells packed tightly while connective tissue has cells scattered throughout an ECM of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins attached to a basement membrane
92
What are the primary elements of connective tissue?
1) fibers
2) cells
3) ground substance
93
connective tissue fibers and matrix are synthesized by specialized cells called...
fibroblasts
94
Fibroblasts secrete 3 main types of fibers. What are they?
1) collagen fibers
2) reticular fibers
3) elastin fibers
95
Which fiber is this?
-long straight fibers which are flexible but have great tensile strength
-resist stretching
-give ligaments and tendons their characteristic resilience and strength
-hold connective tissues together, especially during movement
collagen fibers
96
Which fibers would make up....
-tendons
-ligaments
-skin
-cornea
-cartilage
-bone
-blood vessels
-gut
-IVDs?
test q
collagen fibers
97
Which fibers would make up....
-arteries
-lungs
-intestines
-skin
-elastic ligaments of the vertebral column?
test q
elastin fibers
98
Which fiber is this?
-a narrow branching network of fibers found throughout the body by most abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs such as liver and spleen where they anchor and provide structural support and scaffolding to the parenchyma
reticular fibers
99
Which fiber would make up...
-liver
-bone marrow
-lymphatic tissue?
test q
reticular fibers
100
What fibers are needed for wound repair and remodeling?
test q
collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers
101
What are the 4 main types of connective tissue?
1) connective tissue proper (loose and dense connective tissue)
2) cartilage
3) bone
4) blood
note: lymph is also a connective tissue but is not a main one
102
What are the 2 types of connective tissue proper?
loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue
103
What is the most common type of connective tissue?
loose CT
104
Which CT is this?
-few fibers in lots of ground substance
-acts as a filling, shock absorber, reservoir for salt and fluid
-under epithelia of skin, mucous membranes, capillaries, and surrounding organs (spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow)
loose CT
105
Which CT is this?
-composed of tightly packed collagen fibers with little ground substance
-found in tendons and ligaments- help attach muscles to bones and link bones together at joints
-thicker and stronger than loose CT
-forms a protective capsule layer around organs (liver and kidneys)
-a part of the dermis layer of the skin
-elastic type is found in arteries, vocal cords, trachea, and bronchial tubes in lungs and vertebral ligaments
dense CT
106
What is the most common type of cartilage and is moderately flexible? It is found in the trachea, ribs, and nose
hyaline cartilage
107
Which cartilage is the strongest and most inflexible? It is found between vertebrae, some joints, and heart valves
fibrocartilage
108
Which cartilage is the most flexible type and found in the ear and larynx?
elastic cartilage
109
Bone is a mineralized CT containing collagen and calcium phosphate (gives bones firmness). There are 2 types of bones. What are they?
1) spongy bone (1st type formed during bone formation)
2) compact bone (strong, dense and forms the hard outer bone surface)
110
What is plasma membrane made from?
proteins and lipids
111
What represents 1/2 of the volume of eukaryotic cells?
cytoplasm/cytosol
112
Which organelle is necessary to maintain the sodium pump?
mitochondria
113
Which organelle is responsible for protein production and assembly?
ribosomes
114
Which organelle functions as a manufacturing and packing system?
ER
115
What are the essential functions of the ER?
-protein synthesis and processing
-lipid synthesis
-calcium storage and release
116
Do RBCs have an ER?
no
117
Cells which synthesize and release a lot of proteins, like a cell from the pancreas or liver, have substantial amounts of which organelle?
ER
118
What similarity do RER and SER have in common?
both have double membranes that are tubular or saclike channels called cisternae
119
Which ER type acts as a storage organelle and a "shipping" area for ER products to be sent to other parts of the cell?
smooth ER
120
What does the SER synthesize?
-lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol which are used to produce new cell membranes
-steroid hormones from cholesterol
-in brain cells, the SER synthesizes male and female hormones from cholesterol
-in liver cells, the SER synthesizes enzymes which help detoxify certain drugs and chemicals
121
Which organelle modifies proteins and lipids/fats that have been built in the ER and prepares them for export outside of the cell or for transport to other locations in the cell?
golgi apparatus/ golgi body
122
Lysosomes are organelles that contain degradative, _______________ enzymes. They recycle the cell's organic material (cellular material which has exceeded its lifetime or is no longer useful) by digesting them in a process called ___________. Lysosomes also isolate and destroy substances toxic to the cell and break large molecules into smaller molecules
hydrolytic (hydrolases), autophagy
123
-phagy =?
eat
124
What is autophagy?
a cell destroys its own damaged or senescent organelles by sequestering them in vacuoles within the cell which are then fused with lysosomes
125
What is heterophagy?
a cell destroys exogenous material that has been taken in through endocytosis, creating a newly formed vacuole which then fuses with lysosomes
126
Lysosomes break down large proteins into....
AAs
127
Lysosomes break down large carbs into...
simple sugars
128
Lysosomes break down large lipids into....
single fatty acids
129
Lysosomes are found in all cells but are most numerous in.....
disease fighting cells like WBCs
130
What are the 2 types of endocytosis?
phagocytosis and pinocytosis
131
What is phagocytosis?
"to eat"
a cells uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle, giving rise to an internal compartment called a phagosome. It fuses with lysosomes and the engulfed material is digested
132
What is pinocytosis?
"to drink"
the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane. It fuses with lysosomes and the engulfed material is digested
133
Centrioles are cylindrical, barrel shaped organelles composed of microtubules located near the nucleus. They are only active during.....
cell division
134
T/F: centrioles are found in both plant and animal cells
false, only in animal cells
135
Microtubules are rigid, hollow tubes that form the ______________ that give shape and structure to eukaryotic cells and are the major components of cilia and flagella (cell locomotion). Microtubules also participate in the formation of the spindle during mitosis (cell division)
cytoskeleton
136
Does the nucleolus have a membrane?
no
137
Which organelle assembles the cell's ribosomal RNA?
nucleolus
138
Does the nucleolus contain chromosomes?
no
139
Which organelle is the "shipping/receiving department" bc it regulates what enters and leaves the cell?
plasma membrane
140
Which organelle is the "CEO" bc it controls all cell activity and determines what proteins will be made?
nucleus
141
Which organelle is the "factory floor" bc it contains all of the organelles and is the site of most cellular activity?
cytoplasm
142
Which organelle is the "assembly line” bc its where the ribosomes do the work?
ER
143
Which organelle is the "workers in an assembly line" bc it builds the proteins?
ribosomes
144
Which organelle is the "finishing/packaging department" bc it prepares proteins for use or export?
golgi apparatus
145
Which organelle is the "maintence crew" bc it is responsible for breaking down and absorbing material taken in by the cell?
lysosomes
146
Which organelle is the "support beam" bc it maintains the cell shape?
cytoskeleton
147
Which organelle is the power plant bc it transforms one form of energy into another?
mitochondria/ chloroplasts
