Pagan Roots of Modern Funeral Prectice Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
The __________ _________ of a “decent burial” or some reverential form of disposition of a dead human body seems to be a common mores throughout the history of civilized man.
A
basic right
2
Q
_____________ ______________ defined as what people take for granted, the opinions which become firm premises upon which they base the final group thinking and their individual judgments without questioning the broad underlying assumption
A
Common beliefs
The concept of the American funeral is thus based in the development of common beliefs
3
Q
The importance of laws, customs, traditions and fashions (trends) all result in the entrenchment of what has come to be called ________ ________
A
funeral practices
4
Q
What lies behind the contemporary American beliefs and practices that have developed into our modern funeral customs?
A
- CUSTOMS, LAWS, and TRADITION deeply rooted in the history of western civilization.
- HUMANITARIANISM is defined as a doctrine that man’s obligation are limited to and dependent alone on man and human relations.
- The development of personal services rendered by an OCCUPATIONAL GROUP set apart to serve these functions - MORTICIAN
- Service based on religious concepts and teachings provided by the clergy of the JUDEO/CHRISTIAN FAITH.
5 The desire to conform to developing HYGIENIC STANDARDS (OSHA & EPA REGULATIONS) as they evolved throughout history, particularly among western culture
5
Q
LIST QUESTION - Composition of western culture today, is a result of:
A
Greek Aesthetics and philosophy
Roman Law and administrative genius
Teutonic (Germanic) vigor superimposed upon the dominant Judeo Christian tradition
Pagan cultural and philosophical roots that developed into Hebrew beliefs that became the foundation of the christian religion
6
Q
Egypt was a relatively modern society that flourished for _________ ________ in the Nile Delta having a _________ _____ or _______ ______ : cultural, social, political, economic, and religious
A
5,000 years
Distinct order
Defined systems
7
Q
The Egyptians believed that the ______ was the center and the focus of the universe, from which all things emerged and to which they returned.
A
sun
8
Q
Osiris was the God of the ________ and ________ of the dead
A
underworld
judge
9
Q
The justified soul would be allowed to pass into _________ ________ and take the name ________
A
perpetual happiness
Osiris
10
Q
The belief of a circle of necessity, is in ___ _____ _______ with a later concept developed by the Judeo/Christian thinkers, specifically, the belief in the ________ of the soul
A
no way connected
immortality
11
Q
LIST QUESTION - The elements of the body
A
The BA - the soul or spirit
YAKHU - “the shining one” The soul transported to the sun
The NAME - identity of the deceased
The SHADOW - flesh and bones
The HEART - intellect and emotions (often not removed)
The KA - offerings to the dead; prayers, jewels, etc.
12
Q
What was the second motive for burial?
A
The Chinese and the Egyptians did dry burials to prevent plague from happening. The believed putrefaction in the soils would bring on plague
13
Q
What is a Dry Burial
A
Bodies that were clothed and laid upon beds of charcoal under six to eight feet of sand. These bodies were NOT treated chemically
14
Q
There are more ______ mummies than _______ mummies
A
natural
chemical
15
Q
Egyptians embalming practices peaked during the __________ _______ period
A
new kingdom
16
Q
Who is Herodotus?
A
“The father of recorded history”
he described embalming in detail in his work “The Persian Wars”
17
Q
Who is Diodorus Siculus?
A
He wrote about the embalming process during the time of Jesus Christ.
18
Q
The most expensive, highest grade of embalming practices were only for the __________
A
nobility and wealthy. which was on 2% - 5%
Also includes the Merchant Military class
19
Q
What is the FIRST step in embalming nobility?
A
STEP ONE - EVISCERATION PROCESS of all body cavities.
-The brain is injected with cedar oil thru the ear and nose. The brain is dissolved and removed. The cranial cavity is packaged with bandages soaked in resin bitumen (coal tar derivative).
-The thoracic, abdominal and pelvic area were entered thru the LEFT LUMBAR REGION. Cut with a sharp ETHIOPIAN STONE (black flint). viscera was removed, cleaned and spiced
20
Q
What is the SECOND step in embalming nobility?
A
STEP TWO - VATTING PROCESS
-The eviscerated shell is immersed in NATRON for 70 days (or drypacked for 35 days). The shell is then removed, cleansed and straightened to be baked in sun to induce dehydration.
21
Q
What is the THIRD step in embalming nobility?
A
STEP THREE - TREATMENT OF THE VICERA
-During certain periods of history, the viscera was packed in spices, vinegar, perfumes and resins, and RETURNED TO THE BODY CAVITIES
-During the NEW KINGDOM the viscera was placed in LIMESTONE CANOPIC JARS
22
Q
What are the 4 heads of the Canopic Jars?
A
MESTHA (Imsety) - human head protecting the stomach and large intestine
HAPI (Hapy) - baboon head protected the small intestine
TUAMUTEF (Dwanutef) - jackal head, protects lungs and heart
QEBHSENNUF (Qebesenuef) - Hawk head, protects liver and gall bladder
23
Q
What is the FOURTH step in embalming nobility?
A
STEP FOUR - WRAPPING and JEWELING OF THE BODY
- Painters and artists placed missing fingernails and toenails with GOLD THIMBLES (only for pharaohs)
- abdominal incision was sutured and a metal or gold seal with the “EYE OF OSIRIS” was placed on top so Osiris would pass judgment
- The body was spiced and jeweled using long bandages soaked in pitch blend, gum and glue. The body was wrapped wet so the end results are a dried hard shell
24
Q
What is the FIFTH step in embalming nobility?
A
STEP FIVE - ENCASEMENT PROCEDURE
- Remains were returned to family for encasement.
First a MUMMY CASE (wood)
Second a LARGER MUMMY CASE or RECTANGULAR BOX. (wood)
Third a SARCOPHAGUS of granite or cement
25
Who and how were the middle class embalmed?
10% - 15% of all mummies
includes the technical class, merchants, and field officers
- NO EVISCERATION, but all cavities injected with cedar oil
- VATTING in natron for 70 days
- NO WRAPPING, BEJEWELING or ENCASEMENT. The pickled shell is returned to the family for them to handle
26
How were the lower class embalmed?
80% of all mummies
- PICKLED SHELL dipped into vat of HOT BITUMENT or TAR for up to 70 days. (Black mummies)
- usually dry burials on a charcoal bed.
27
What does Sarcophagus mean?
flesh eater
28
In EARLY periods of Egyptian history, the desire to keep bodies from touching the earth were made of?
- Mats and animal skins
- reed baskets
- Wooden or earthenware canisters
also seen in most early african people too
29
In LATER periods of Egyptian history the concern for perfection in preservation increased, so the use _______________ began
Sarcophagus.
They were massive rectangles with HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIPTIONS
30
During the rise of the cult of Osiris, coffins were changed to...
ANTHROPOID (resembling man)
Wood is sculpted and later CARTONNAGED with linen and stucco
31
What was final development of the Egyptian coffins and who was their influence?
portrait coffins were developed by the Romans
32
Describe the Concept of Balance with the Egyptians
The heart of the death man was weighed against a feather by ANUBIS, the God of Embalming and Protector of the Deceased.
Should the balance be unfavorable, the heart was devoured by the monster AMENT thus ending the chance for the soul to become an Osiris
33
What is a Necropolis?
walled suburbs established near large population centers in Egypt that contained mortuary temples and the residence of those involved with embalming
"cities of the dead"
34
Who are the Guanches?
Inhabitants of the 13 Canary Islands. It was very similar to the Egyptian society.
Men embalmed men
Women embalmed Women
Those mortuary workers lived isolated and were respected.
Used a Black flint stone called TABONA
35
What is Xaxos?
The name given to a Gaunche mummy. they were light in weight and hard as wood.
mens arms were positioned down and womens were folded over the abdomen
36
The ancient Greek beliefs in death, went for a period of ______ years.
2,000
37
During the Homeric times of greek history, the concept of a _________ ______ under the earth became a popular belief. A belief uncommon to ancient Mediterranean people.
Shadowy Afterlife
it was populated with disembodied souls
38
Germanic European tribes began _________ and later made its way to Greece to become the dominant form of disposition.
cremation
39
With the Cult of Dionysius, greek culture believed the concept of?
the soul separating from the body and joining the god
40
What was the name of Greek Heaven?
Elysian Fields.
only a few selected would pass into this everlasting happiness
41
Generally, the Greek population prior to Christianity held the most ________ view of the afterlife.
pessimistic
it was filled with despair and hopelessness
42
The Law of Athens required?
a burial for all, including the corpse of strangers.
the cremains of fallen soldiers were returned after battle for a mass internment in Athens
43
Types of Greek Tombs
Stelae or Shaft : upright slabs of stone; a kind of marker or head stone
Kiones or Columns : A tomb having above ground single or multiple columns
Trapezae or Square Cut Tombs : Mausoleum, similar to an above ground crypt; single or multiple interments
Niadia or Temple like structures: Owned by one family, most elaborate of the greek tombs, small burial building for multiple interments
44
In Greek preparation of the body, all preparations were to be handled by the _______ of the family.
Females
there was no embalming, eviscerating or pickling. The body was only wrapped in 3 robes called BIERS
45
For the Greeks, passage into the netherworld required?
crossing the river styx
A coin called an OBOL was placed in Mouth for CHARON the ferryman. If no money, the soul could wonder the shores of the river styx for 100 years.
46
For the Greeks, the deceased was furnished with flowers and laid in state for _____ days, in fear of being buried alive. (WAKE)
7 days
the Greek were the first to use flowers.
47
Included with the OBOL, Greek corpses also required a honey cake for the ________ _______ ______ named _______, guardian of the lower region
3 headed dog
Cerberus
48
One hour before dawn, the Greek Procession would consist of?
1. Corpse bearers, OFTEN HIRED!
2. Female blood relations over the age of 16 or any female acquaintance over 60.
3. Fraternity members (occupational)
4. HIRED dirge singers
49
Cycle of cremation and/or earth burial in Greek History
Prior to 1000 BC - earth burial
1000 BC - Christ, cremation (because of Germanic influence)
500 AD - a return to earth burial, greece was under Christian influence
50
Ancient Greek coffins and tombs were actually?
grave liners or crude vaults.
The deceased was rarely transported in a coffin.
51
What is a Bas-Relief?
an ancient Greek grave site with artistic design. Wheat was used as a symbol at the grave
52
In celebration of the death, the Greek community would practice?
Funeral Feast - fast would break after interment
Sacrifices - animals would be sacrificed on specified days of the year
Suttee - (not really practiced) slaughter of slaves and animals to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. The most extreme was seen in the HINDU faith
53
Describe the Romans Animistic view on Death?
Although separated at death from the body, the soul hovered around the place of burial for its continued peace and happiness. It required constant attention from descendants in the form of offerings, food and drink. (or the soul will turn evil and haunt the family)
54
What is the Epicurean influence?
A Roman philosophical concept proposed that the body and soul, composed of atoms (small particles) simply disintegrating at death.
This resulted in the "live for the day" philosophy
55
Roman and Greek burial/cremation cycles were _________
same. The influence of Christianity
56
What is Commune Sepulchrum?
Extramural Internment burial pits outside the Roman City. They were placed away from the city for SANITARY REASONS
57
Who were the "Misera Plebs"
Poor Romans who couldn't afford a tomb. They were a burden to the state.
They were the reason Burial Societies began. (Christians)
58
Who is Libitina?
The Roman Goddess of corpses and funerals
59
Who is Libitinarius?
Roman secular funeral director charging for his services. He dominated and directed the funeral
60
Who are Pollinctores?
Slaves or employee of the Roman Libitinaruis. They aided in using ointments, perfumes and spices to help hold the remains for about a week.
There is evidence of cavity evisceration and pickling for the rich
61
Who is Designator?
The Roman "Master of Ceremonies", subordinate to the Libitanarius who took charge of all FUNERAL PROCESSIONS. (apprentice)
62
Who are Praeco or Crier?
a Special functionary who summoned the participants to a public Roman Funeral
63
Who is the Buffoon?
Roman Practice
a hired actor to portray the deceased during the funeral procession. He would great mourners and thank those that attended.
Wax Masks from previous deceased family members were worn too
64
Ordinary Funerals for the majority were held at night and the High status funeral processions were held during the day, but the _______ _______ ________ continued as custom
Custom of torchbearing
65
What is Conclamatio Mortis?
A triple ceremonial farewell or calling out of the dead as they circled the deceased three times. A pagan ritual practiced by the Romans.....it was to try and wake them up
66
The Roman Libitinarius would later be replaced by church-state officials called _______
Decani (one step from priesthood)
67
The Decani would provide the deceased with?
a bier
coffin
grave
a religious procession including a cross bearer, eight monks and 3 ACOLYTES, also bier bearers
68
Roman burial practice marked a major step in defining the status, character, and occupational role of the _____ _____ _____
modern funeral director
69
The Hebrews believed that the man was composed of Two elements?
The BASAR (flesh) and NEFESH (breath)
70
The Hebrews believed that at death, the soul would go to a netherworld called?
SHEOL (afterlife)
71
At the time of Christ, Hebrew death beliefs were basically these:
(Christ preached these tenants)
- the soul of the good would pass on to a glorious existence; the of the evil would face eternal damnation (immortality of the soul)
- The soul at the last judgment would reunite with the body and be judged for the last time resulting in a final reward or punishment
72
What are the typical Hebrew Burial Custom?
- remains were washed, spiced for odor
- attired in their clothing indicating their station in life. Shrouding came later. (Christ was shrouded)
- Out of hygiene necessity, all Semitic cultures buried the dead in the evening
--the poor were carried on a bier and interred in a shallow trench and covered with a mound of dirt. The rich were interred in natural caves or artificial stone sepulchers.
73
What are some Hebrew Mourning Customs?
- mourners went naked until the burial rites were completed, this gave way to tearing of clothes later in history.
- men strip down to a loin cloth
- sandals were discarded as bare feet remained a symbol of death
- draped or covered their head
- shaved off beards and cut hair
- fasting
- hired mourners to sing dirges
74
LIST QUESTION: What are the 4 varieties of Hebrew Graves?
SUNKEN GRAVE - simple bench or trench
SINGLE CHAMBER - above ground, one grave tomb
MULTI-GRAVE CHAMBER - above ground, more than one grave/cave
MULTI-CHAMBER - for the wealthy, several connected multi-grave chambers
75
To the Hebrews, cremation was considered?
an insult and was strictly forbidden
76
What is Canon Law 1203 and 1204?
revised in 1963, allowed cremation of the Roman Catholics as long as the intention is other than the denial of the resurrection of the body and Christian burial is permitted for the cremated remains.
No scattering of the ashes.
77
Christians rejected Egyptian, Greek, and Roman concept of an ___________ afterlife based on discrimination.
aristocratic
78
What is Extreme Unction?
The sacrament of preparation used for last rights at war
modern "sick call set", sometimes in a crucifix, that is used by a priest.
79
LIST QUESTION: In a Christian Wake, The Canon Law required that lying in state have?
- Lights at the head and feet (candles)
- The body be blessed with holy water and incense
- a cross be placed upon the breast, or if no cross, the hands should be folded
- coffin was optional, buried in consecrated grounds
- "THE KISS OF PEACE" - a departure from early Hebrew beliefs forbidding contact with the body
80
LIST QUESTION: In the Christian faith, the wake or death watch would last from eight hours to three days and would serve two purposes:
- give time for the family to adjust to the loss of a loved one
- A common fear among the ancients was being buried alive. The wake guaranteed against premature burial. The tombs were often left unsealed for 3 days to be sure they were dead
81
The funeral procession as well as the committal service were conducted under church supervision including:
- ALMS in the form of food and money were given to the poor
- PURGATORIAL DOCTRINE: Public prayers for the salvation of the deceased soul
- MEMORIAL REQUIEM MASSES on certain days to remember the dead. (All Saints Day - November 1st)
82
What is an Extramural Interment?
All cremation and burials would take place away from population centers, often along roadway and always outside city walls
83
What is an Intramural Interment?
Burial within city walls, in population centers in the vicinity of churches or within the church itself
84
What is the Laws of the Twelve Tables?
Pre-christian pagan Roman Laws; one of which stated that there would be no burial or cremation in the city. (for sanitary purposes)
85
The roman Catholic Church established great religious feast days to commemorate publicly and solemnly the death of martyrs, who were murdered for their religious beliefs. What were they?
November 1st - All Saints Day
November 2nd - All Souls Day
86
What is a Levatio Corporis?
The Christian WAKE of an un-embalmed body in the families home
87
LIST QUESTION: Cremation as a death belief involved two basic concepts and developed and influence projected into modern times.
- To burn the body as a method of keeping the spirits of the dead from harming the living
- To free the spirit of the dead from the clogging prison of the body.
88
What is a Funeral pyre?
deceased placed on pile of wood and burned
89
What is a Soul Shot?
Mortuary fees paid to the church from the estate of the deceased for complete funeral service was instituted. (Decani getting the money)
90
What was Constatantine's Edict of Toleration?
encouraged intramural interments without regard to sanitation - also developed church yard. (generally rich people were interred in church floors)
91
Who was Emperor Theodosius?
re-instituted extramural interment by law for sanitary reasons. (bad odors in churches)
92
What is the Legal Code of Justinian?
Required extramural interment by law for sanitation reasons
93
Who is Pope Gregory the Great?
encouraged intramural internment as a right to every Christian (last Judgement - body and soul will reunite - want to be near the church)
94
Who is Charlemagne?
(French) attempted to stamp out intramural burial by creating extramural cemeteries consecrated by the Roman Catholic Church away from population centers.
Charlemagne was buried intramurally in the church
95
Who is the Archbishop of Canterbury?
rebuilt the Cathedral in 1705 with intramural crypts only for clergy and parishioners of Merit
96
Who is Cardinal Bourbon?
Archbishop of Rouen stated not even the rich should be buried in churches. Supported extramural burial for sanitary reasons
97
What is God's Acre?
name given to intramural church yard, cemeteries built next to churches
98
What is the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory?
A state in which those whose souls are not perfectly cleansed undergo a process of cleansing before they can enter heaven
99
What is a Death Watch?
a death crier dressed in black with a skull and crossbones on both sides of his gown, would ring a bell to announce the death of a guild member.
each guild would have a death crier
100
The wake during the Middle Ages was characterized by rioting and drunkenness also obscene customs of "________ ___ ________", a kind of necromancy or black magic to call out or raise the soul of the departed
Rousing the Ghost
101
The Bubonic Plaque is caused by?
Yersinia pestis.
It is carried by infected fleas on Black Rats
102
Who was The Flagellant Society?
Originated in Germany and Austria.
It was an anti-semetic order of lay men who blamed the Jewish population of Europe for the Bubonic plague
103
What is the Aldgate Plague Pit
an extramural burial pit used to inter bubonic plague victims near London
104
What was the Act of 1547
It forbid burials between six in the evening and six in the morning.
It was believed that the fog and mist would carry the disease.
It was also a way to monitor the dead
105
What is a Parish Shell?
A rented coffin used as bier during the middle ages
106
What is the Burial in Woolen Act?
The wool industry was in a depression, so the British Crown said all shrouds and coffin linings were to be made of wool.
This also helped conserve linen for the paper industry.
107
What is the Black Cloak?
AKA: Widow's Weeds
similar to those worn by nuns symbolized the mourning garments of the widow during the Middle Ages.
Widows assumed the look of nuns
108
What was the Widow's Code of Conduct?
the widow of an important man would retire to a convent or dower house garbed as a nun.
Remarriage was considered unthinkable
109
What is a Sin-eater?
By eating a loaf of bread, drinking a bowl of stale beer over a corpse, and accepting a six pence, a man was able to take unto himself the sins of the deceased, whose ghost thereafter would no longer wander
110
Why would you be buried upside down?
It was believed that on Judgement Day, the world would be upside down, turned around, you would rise in the proper position
111
What is Zeit-Geist?
The spirit of the time, the view men take of death.
112
What is a Divided Burial - Independent Heart Burial?
This practice was usually associated with relics; that is the hearts were removed from religious leaders and were preserved as relics
113
What is Divided Burial - Independent Bone Burial?
This practice was usually associated with transporting war dead from the crusades back home to be interred.
Dead bodies were boiled down to skeletons and the bones shipped for funeralization.
114
Who were called Short Robe or Long Robe?
Embalmers were called Short Robes
Surgeons were called long robes
115
Who is Vesalius?
Wrote "De Corpora Humani Fabrica" one of the best studies of anatomy during the Renaissance
116
Who is Mundinus?
Professor at the University of Bologna who dissected 2 cadavers
He is considered the first serious anatomist of the Middle Ages
117
Rejection of the Doctrine of Purgatory and Indulgences was brought about by?
Martin Luther
118
List Question - Who were the Egyptian undertaking specialists and what was there role or function?
Kher-Heb : Major priest in charge
Designor or Painter : Cosmetics, bejeweling and wrapping
Dissector or Anatomist : Evisceration and vatting (Paraschistes: Embalmer)
Scribe : Lawyer who over saw incision
Pollinctor or Apothecary : Chemist in charge of vatting
Physician or Priest : Assisted Kher-heb but was more involved with ritual and prayer
Embalmer or Surgeon : upper level Mast Dissector or Anatomist
119
List Question - Funeral Functionaries in Roman society
Libitina - Goddess of corpses and Funerals
Libitinarius - Secular funeral director who collected money for funeral services
Pollinctores : Slave or Employee of the Libitinarius.
Designor - Master of Ceremonies for procession
Praeco or Crier - specialized functionary who summoned participants
120
LIST QUESTION - To make cadavers with minimal amount of mutilation three system evolved. They were;
Evisceration and immersion - pickling (vatting)
Desiccation - Allowing a remains to dehydrate on a plaster of Paris Cast. (Leonardo Da Vinci made these)
Arterial Injection - The most recent and most successful of the three, it was widely used after William Harvey discovered blood circulation
121
After 1350, Anatomist would switch from natural herbs and oils for embalming and use what instead?
Salts of Heavy Metal or Metallic poisons
122
Who is Girolamo Segato?
A 17th century Florentine physician who injected remains with silicate of Potash and then immersed the body in a weak acid solution.
The end result was a stone-like statue
123
What is the Warburton Act of 1832?
This allowed British Medical Schools to use unclaimed bodies for cadavers.
Many of these were arterially embalmed
Most were prisoners and Debtors Prisoners
124
LIST QUESTION - What did Edwin Chadwick expose during his investigation?
- Child murder for insurance collections
- Embalming was poor quality, long wakes were unsanitary and contributed to sharing diseases
- Graves too shallow and was contributing to odors and gases being released
- Competition was fierce among undertakers but the cost of a funeral never decreased
- Burial Societies were operated and controlled by undertakers. Pricing was fixed
- the church of England was incompetent in record keeping and supervising administrative force in the funeralization process.
- Undertakers had to be regulated, too many are incompetent. There were no standards and anyone could do it.
