paper 1 physical questions Flashcards

Question

Assess the impacts to which flooding within the hydrological cycle can have for people (12)

Answer 1

Socio-economic death and injury spread of water-borne diseases trauma damage to property, particularly housing disruption of transport and communications interruption of water and energy supplies destruction of crops and loss of supplies disturbance of everyday life, including work Environmental The environmental impacts of flooding receive much less publicity, perhaps because there are some positives: recharged groundwater stores increased connectivity between aquatic habitats soil replenishment for many species, flood events trigger breeding, migration and dispersal Most ecosystems have a degree of ecological resilience that can cope with the effects of moderate flooding, It is where the environment has been degraded human activities that negative impacts are more evident. For example, the removal of soil and sediment by floodwaters can lead to the eutrophication of water bodies. That same floodwater can also leach pollutants into water courses with disastrous effects for wildlife, while diseases carried by floodwater can weaken or kill trees.

Answer 2

The primary causes of floods are either meteorological, such as short-term weather events, or longer-term climatic causes such as rainfall patterns. In the UK, the usual cause of flooding is prolonged or heavy rain associated with the passage of low-pressure systems or depressions e.g UK wettest summer floods of 2007 and 2012. In southern and eastern Asia, intense seasonal monsoon rainfall can result in widespread, damaging flooding. For example, Bangladesh is at risk due to being in a low-lying location, 80% of their people are exposed to flood risk and half of the country is less than 12.5m above sea level. This proves that the location of a region can immediately expose them to flood risk, regardless of if there are any human factors Another factor that encourage floods physically is through the processes of snow and ice. Melting snow in the late spring regularly causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and America. The quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snow melting, while their lower reaches remain frozen, with very limited infiltration. Flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams. Sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding. In addition, other physical factors that can affect flood risk include the amount and type of vegetation, the slope, the rock type, drainage density and soil depth. All these factors show physical landscape can naturally increase flood risk. As well as physical factors, human factors are also responsible for flooding. Deforestation is the removal of trees and vegetation, meaning a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run off. This will have an effect on a storm hydrograph, if there is no vegetation to intercept water then surface run-off will reach the river much quicker, the short lag time means the river will reach peak discharge very quickly, and in result cause flooding. In the Amazonia rainforest over 20% of the forest has been cleared, for reasons such as cattle ranching, large scale commercial agriculture for biofuels, soya beans, the development of roads. The amazon contains 60% of the world’s rainforest. 75% of intercepted water is returned by evapotranspiration to the atmosphere, this is reduced to 25% when the forest is cleared. As more water runs off into the Amazon drainage system, this exacerbates the possibility of severe flooding. So, deforestation clearly has a negative impact for flooding as it leads to a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run-off, speeding up the cycle This closely links to the problem of urbanisation. A combination of economic and population growth throughout the twentieth century have caused many flood plains to be built on and many natural landscapes to be modified for agricultural, industrial and urban purposes. Urbanisation causes a number of factors which increase flood risk; first being the creation of impermeable tarmac surfaces, this means that not interception can take place so more surface run-off will reach the river in larger volumes and more quickly, for example, in London around 60% of gardens have been paved over in order to create parking spaces, this proves how much ground is being converted into impermeable surfaces and is increasing with time. Secondly, the speeding up of drainage of water in built-up areas via drains and sewers, means that more water is getting to rivers faster, so in a heavy rainfall event the lag time of a river would be very short and would be likely to flood fast. In conclusion, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that physical factors do increase flooding, whether human disturbances are there or not, some regions are naturally more at risk to flooding due to factors such as rock type and soil depth. Humans to a somewhat equal extent increasing flooding risk by rapidly increasing urbanisation and activities such as deforestation that speed up the flooding cycle and can ultimately increase the amount of river discharge too. So, whether human factors or physical factors are more responsible for the flooding depends on the location and landscape

Answer 3

There are significant factors in which prove that humans play a role in causing flooding. One important factor is the concept of deforestation. This is the removal of trees and vegetation, meaning a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run off. This will have an obvious effect on a storm hydrograph, if there is no vegetation to intercept water then surface run-off will reach the river much quicker, the short lag time means the river will reach peak discharge very quickly, and in result cause flooding. An example of the effects it has is the Amazonia rainforest. In this location, over 20% of the forest has been cleared, for reasons such as cattle ranching, large scale commercial agriculture for biofuels, soya beans, the development of roads and legal and illegal logging. The amazon contains 60% of the world’s rainforest. 75% of intercepted water is returned by evapotranspiration to the atmosphere, this is reduced to 25% when the forest is cleared. As more water runs off into the Amazon drainage system, this exacerbates the possibility of severe flooding. So, deforestation clearly has a negative impact for flooding as it leads to a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase insurface run-off, speeding up the cycle. This closely links to the problem of urbanisation. A combination of economic and population growth throughout the twentieth century have caused many flood plains to be built on and many natural landscapes to be modified for agricultural, industrial and urban purposes. Urbanisation causes a number of factors which increase flood risk; first being the creation of impermeable tarmac surfaces, this means that not interception can take place so more surface run-off will reach the river in larger volumes and more quickly, for example, in London around 60% of gardens have been paved over in order to create parking spaces, this proves how much ground is being converted into impermeable surfaces and is increasing with time. Secondly, the speeding up of drainage of water in built-up areas via drains and sewers, means that more water is getting to rivers faster, so in a heavy rainfall event the lag time of a river would be very short and would be likely to flood fast.] These factors clearly suggest that humans do influence flooding to a considerable extent, although there are also significant physical factors that naturally occur that will influence flooding too. The primary causes of floods are either meteorological, such as short-term weather events, or longer-term climatic causes such as rainfall patterns. In the UK, the usual cause of flooding is prolonged or heavy rain associated with the passage of low-pressure systems or depressions. The degree of flooding can depend on precise depression sequence, sometimes a succession of very intense storms has a cumulative effect on the drainage system, like in October-December 2015. In other areas, in particular southern and eastern Asia, intense seasonal monsoon rainfall can result in widespread, damaging flooding. For example, Bangladesh is at risk due to being in a low-lying location, 80% of their people are exposed to flood risk and half of the country is less than 12.5m above sea level. This proves that the location of a region can immediately expose them to flood risk, regardless of if there are any human factors. Another factor that can encourage floods physically is through the processes of snow and ice. This usually occurs in higher latitudes or mountainous areas. Melting snow in the late spring regularly causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and America. The quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snow melting, while their lower reaches remain frozen, with very limited infiltration. Flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams. Sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding. In addition, other physical factors that can affect flood risk include the amount and type of vegetation, the slope, the rock type, drainage density and soil depth. All these factors show that even without human interference, physical landscape can naturally increase flood risk n conclusion, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that humans do increase flooding, such as the rapidly increasing urbanisation and activities such as deforestation that speed up the flooding cycle and can ultimately increase the amount of river discharge too. However, there are physical factors which show that whether human disturbances are there or not, some regions are naturally more at risk to flooding due to factors such as rock type and soil depth. So, whether human factors or physical factors are more responsible for the flooding depends on the location and landscape.

Answer 4

climate change is increase in atmospheric temperatures, leading to more moisture holding capacity by the atmosphere and overall increasing global land temperatures, all of which can be seen to be having a large impact on the hydrological cycle. Climate change can be seen to be increasing global temperatures as well impacting upon short term weather patterns such as ENSO cycles. El nino events triggers drought in south east asia, Australia, Indonesia, south east America and triggers wet conditions in places like peru. Many scientists predict that with increasing global temperatures, events such as El nino are likely to increase in frequency, therefore so will events such as floods and droughts. This combined with increasing average temperatures therefore can be seen to be having a large impact, both globally and locally. An example of where such deficits have already begun to have a significant impact can be seen upon vital ecosystems such as rainforests that play an important role in the water cycle, both locally within areas where this occurs but also globally too. An example = Amazon rainforest, where as a result in decreasing levels of precipitation, droughts are becoming much more common = leads to rainforest not being able to perform functions such as absorb carbon from the atmosphere which is then in turn just exacerbating the effects on the water cycle. More carbon is increasing temperatures, drying out vegetation and then reducing the vegetarians ability to transpire and evaporate, reducing the amount of moisture in the air further reducing precipitation levels. called positive feedback loops!!! with warming temperatures just leading to further impacts on the vegetation causing a domino effect on its function within the hydrological cycle, adding to the frequency of deficits within countries such as Brazil, as well as then impact globally on precipitation patterns as a result of such reduced evapotranspiration and reduction of the amazon operating as a carbon sink, something that plays a key role in helping to maintain the carbon balance and so reduce increasing temperatures. -another impact on a more local scale of increasing temperatures can be seen as a result of reductions in precipitation in areas such as California, a state that relies heavily upon rainfall patterns but that has begun to experience what scientists are now calling 'Mega droughts', expected to last up to 30 yrs. This increase in temperatures is impacting upon all elements of the hydrological cycle within the region, each then having a significant knock on effect upon each. Evaporation rates have increased combined with a decrease in precipitation. soil moisture decreases as temp rises. less water infiltration and more surface runoff. this can cause flooding. different regions need different levels of soil moisture. vegetation has increased transpiration. lakes & reservoirs regulate water flow. water is stored there. rising temp means water evaporating. permafrost stores water in ice and soil form. cryosphere also stores water as ice. due to hotter temp, permafrost layer is thinning and melting. ice is now stored as water. -It must though be said that climate change may well lead to some positive impacts, perhaps not globally but particularly upon certain localised regions. An example of this can be seen in the Sahel region, a place known for being extremely dry and arid that has recently experienced greater levels of precipitation than normal. With greater levels of rain this has helped the region in a process called 'regreening', meaning there is possibility for greater vegetation growth, something that may help the region not only in providing further levels of precipitation but also more farmland. this example does show how climate change cannot be a definite negative on all areas of the hydrological cycle, but this may be more locally especially compared to the global evidence of changing detrimental weather patterns already being seen. Conclusion- therefore in conclusion it can be seen that in the majority of cases as a result of increasing global temperatures as well as increasingly variable rainfall patterns, the impacts upon the hydrological will be significant, with this occurring locally but even more significantly on a global scale, particularly in regard to changing weather patterns.

Answer 5

Meteorological: temperature and humidity (high temp and low humidity ) hydrological ( precipitation increases and evaporation is going to increase, lakes, rivers decrease in volume) Geographical location (eg Australia's Outback and Sahel - band of (mostly) landlocked countries) Anthropogenic: Agriculture - irrigation of crops has a huge demand on water supply, desertification leads to wasted water in terms of run off when it does eventually rain Droughts are generally caused by meteorological events, but anthropogenic activity can have an effect on the severity of the drought and the frequency. Sahel Region - countries between Ethiopia and Mauritania - desertification, humanitarian crisis Australia - day zero = however management of water and conservation prevented desertification. Mitigation - ENSO cycles

Answer 6

The biggest, most obvious effect is death. Floods, especially flash floods, will kill people. Flood water can travel surprisingly quickly and weighs3 a lot, so people can easily get swept away by floods. Large chunks of debris and objects like cars can easily get picked up by floodwater and can easily kill a person should they get hit by the debris. In a LEDC, you’re generally going to get much more deaths than you would in a MEDC. In a MEDC, people and governments are better prepared for floods. Rescue services can be dispatched to a flood quickly in a MEDC whereas in a LEDC, rescue teams mightn’t arrive until several hours after the flood started. During a flood, sewage pipes are often broken and raw sewage leaks into the floodwater. This has two effects. First, it contaminates not just floodwater but drinking water too which leads to a spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera especially in LEDCs where emergency drinking water mightn’t be available. Second, the sewage gets into people’s homes which is just horrible, disgusting and incredibly difficult to clean. In LEDCs, famines can follow floods which can lead to even more deaths. Floods will commonly inundate farmland because farmland normally develops on floodplains. If the floodwater is polluted by sewage, it will contaminate the farmland and make any food grown on it dangerous to eat. Furthermore, cattle are often killed by floods which can lead to people starving because they either don’t have a source of food or don’t have a source of income to buy food with. The big economic effect of a flood is property damage. Water can cause a lot of damage to property and when it picks up large chunks of debris such as cars, it can act like a wrecking ball, taking out chunks of buildings when cars crash into them. Very large and powerful floods can even dislodge buildings from their foundations and move them. In a MEDC, property damage is often extensive as people have lots of expensive possessions. This isn’t the case in LEDCs but that’s only because people don’t have a lot to lose in the first place. This means that the overall cost of a flood is generally substantially higher in a MEDC than in a LEDC. Floods can cause extensive damage to infrastructure such as power lines, roads, water pipes etc. Bridges frequently collapse during a flood as they aren’t designed to withstand the high discharge of the river. The Northside Bridge in Workington, Cumbria collapsed when there were large floods in 2009. Repairing bridges and other types of infrastructure is very costly. Not only this, it can lead to a decline in the local economy as businesses are unable to operate without power or road connections. Unemployment can even increase if businesses are unable to fully recover from a flood. The economic impact of infrastructure damage and unemployment is larger in MEDCs since these countries have modern and expensive infrastructure in place. In LEDCs, this infrastructure is lacking, so there isn’t much economic damage. In fact, in a LEDC, floods can lead to positive economic effects in the long term. An influx of funding to a less developed area from charities and NGOs after a flood can result in new infrastructure being constructed that is substantially better than the previously existing infrastructure. This, in turn, creates new economic opportunities in an area by, for example, creating new trade routes. Another economic benefit comes from when a river floods and deposits sediment across the floodplain. This improves the fertility of the floodplain and can improve agricultural yield in an area (assuming the floodwater wasn’t polluted). loodwater that is contaminated with sewage will pollute rivers and land when it drains back into the river. Similarly, if the river floods onto farmland, the water can be polluted by pesticides and other chemicals sprayed onto the farmland that, when drained back into the river, can pollute it and kill off wildlife that inhabits the river. If the floodwater isn’t polluted though, flooding can create wetlands that can help introduce new habitats for many species of animals. The environmental impacts of flooding receive much less publicity, perhaps because there are some positives: recharged groundwater stores increased connectivity between aquatic habitats soil replenishment for many species, flood events trigger breeding, migration and dispersal Most ecosystems have a degree of ecological resilience that can cope with the effects of moderate flooding, It is where the environment has been degraded human activities that negative impacts are more evident. For example, the removal of soil and sediment by floodwaters can lead to the eutrophication of water bodies. That same floodwater can also leach pollutants into water courses with disastrous effects for wildlife, while diseases carried by floodwater can weaken or kill trees.

Answer 7

hydrological cycle stores: -permafrost (good link to climate change - melting permafrost releases CH4 , results in global warming = positive feedback loop) + glaciers -ocean, rising sea levels due to melting ice sheets and glaciers transfers: - precipitation- more extreme in its variation (long periods of draught/ intense rain) - human factor pollution = condensation nuclei = cloud formation - surface-run off - increasing (less infiltration due to urbanisation, deforestation, erosion of soil (can also lead to desertification), damaged soil structure = poor infiltration = surface run off) Climate change - natural event, worsened by human activity (burning fossil fuels - more greenhouse gases - enhanced greenhouse gas effect (different to greenhouse gas effect, although its the same principle - more gases stuck in atmosphere and reflecting suns energy back) Physical factors- ENSO cycles - change in water body patterns. ENSO can also trigger extremely dry conditions in areas South & South-East Asia, Eastern Australia and North-East Brazil To a large extent, climate change has the biggest potential to impact ... - precipitation- more extreme in its variation (long periods of draught/ intense rain) - human factor pollution = condensation nuclei = cloud formation - surface-run off - increasing (less infiltration due to urbanisation, deforestation, erosion of soil (can also lead to desertification), damaged soil structure = poor infiltration = surface run off) On the other hand: ENSO = drought = no precipitation

Answer 8

The Energy Mix of a country is the specific combination of different energy sources it uses to meet its energy consumption needs. important part of energy security. countries that have a high level of economic development means that consumers and energy TNCs within such countries are more able afford to use more energy - and energy that is more costly, including nuclear. countries that have a low level of economic development means that governments are more willing to utilise fossil fuels, including coal (e.g. over 50% of electricity is derived from coal in China), oil and gas, that are often more economically-viable and found in abundance domestically; yet, countries that have a high level of economic development may be at the later stages of the 'energy transition' meaning that such countries are more economically-able to utilise renewable and 'carbon-neutral' energy sources that are often more expensive. for some, energy policy will be taking the cheapest route to meeting the nation's energy needs, regardless of the environmental costs. Others will seek to increase their reliance on renewable sources of energy; wile still other will have in place policies that raise energy efficiency and energy saving. Ensures energy security by reducing or preventing the need for foreign imports that would increase dependency. USA more developed than France, france is less energy secure it relies on 50% imports. French energy mix is different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy & 10% renewable. USA mix is 3quarters of energy comes from fossil fuels and 10% renewable.

Answer 9

vital role in regulating carbon cycle, carbon is essential for life, enters atmosphere through respiration, combustion, weathering & erosion, circulate through planet in carbon cycle. - ocean is important part of cycle as it acts as carbon 'sink' & stores much of the worlds carbon. - in form of CO2, specific levels in atmosphere needed in order for animals to breath & plants to photosynthesise, also affects global temperature. - atmosphere has 589Gt in form of CO2, lower than 38,000 Gt in oceans. - due to carbon sequestration, where phytoplankton absorb carbon through - photosynthesis, turned into organic matter. - passes through food chain, dead animals & plants accumulate on ocean floor. - organic matter decomposes into sediment containing carbon (biological pump, providing flux between atmosphere and ocean). - carbon also absorbed naturally at ocean surface, especially in cold waters. - stored carbon in form of sediment eventually forms sedimentary rocks & fossil fuels (largest carbons store, est. 100,000,000 Gt of carbon). - over time, released back into atmosphere through outgassing, weathering (slow carbon cycle) & human activities. - cycle requires all stores & fluxes to remain complete & regulate carbon. OR the ocean is some of the biggest stores of carbon, it helps to maintain and balance the carbon cycle by absorbing it from one atmosphere and releasing it at the same time the ocean works by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere to be used by photosynthesising plants and photo plankton in the sea this works as a biological pump as eventually the carbon containing organisms will die and fall to the bottom of the sea to help in the process of rock reforming along with this, the oceans thermohaline currents help to bring cold, nutrient snd CO2 rich water up to the surface where it warms. it can release the fresh co2 back into the atmosphere for plants to use and then the thermohaline currents cool the water and it eventually returns to the bottom of the sea the ocean is also helping reduce the impact of global warming CO2 produced from burning fossil fuels can get absorbed by the ocean so it does not impact other life. however, in recent years there has been a change to the ocean , it's getting warmer and more acidic and it's capacity for holding carbon is decreasing as warmer oceans are able to store less this could result in a positive feedback loop where plants and humans and burning fossil fuels, gives out carbon and so does the ocean, increasing CO2 in the atmosphere and this continues and gets worse Oceans play a huge role in regulating carbon cycle by sequestering it, releasing it and helping in the formation of new rocks, yet if a tipping point is reached when the oceans usefulness may start to decrease

Answer 10

Human activities affect the carbon cycle through emissions of carbon dioxide (sources) and removal of carbon dioxide (sinks). The carbon cycle can be affected when carbon dioxide is either released into the atmosphere or removed from the atmosphere. Burning of Fossil Fuels When oil or coal is burned, carbon is released into the atmosphere at a faster rate than it is removed. As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases. Natural gas, oil and coal are fossil fuels that are commonly burned to generate electricity in power plants, for transportation, in homes and in other industrial complexes. The primary industrial activities that emit carbon dioxide and affect the carbon cycle are petroleum refining, paper, food and mineral production, mining and the production of chemicals. Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees from forests. Permanent removal of the trees means new trees will not be replanted. This large-scale removal of trees from forests by people results in increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because trees are no longer absorbing carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon cycle is affected. According to National Geographic, agriculture is the primary cause of deforestation. Farmers remove trees on a large-scale basis to increase acreage for crops and livestock. Carbon Sequestration When plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and store it, the process is called carbon sequestration. Agricultural and forestry methods can affect how much carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and stored by the plants. These sinks of carbon dioxide can be farms, grasslands or forests. Human activity in managing farmland or forests affects the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere by plants and trees. These sinks of carbon dioxide affect the carbon cycle by decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Agriculture or farming can have a significant impact upon the carbon budget. Farming is essential for life on earth as it provides people with the food they need, but with increasing numbers of people on the planet and modern agricultural methods the impact upon the environment can be large. Farming impacts upon the carbon budget in the following ways; 1. People have cleared vast areas of natural biomes and replaced them with crops and pasture. Although farmed plants do take in carbon seasonally, it tends to be far less that the storage in a natural biome. In Tropical forests the process of slash and burn releases huge amounts of stored carbon, and the replacement farming of soya and pasture for cattle takes in small amounts. Palm oil plantations take in more carbon than soya, but not as much as tropical forests. In the UK, the same can be said of our clearing of vast areas of deciduous forest to make way for our farms. 2. Peat lands and wetlands have been drained and used for farmland. In doing so, methane is released as organic matter that was previously stored and in anaerobic conditions can now decay. 3. There has been a huge increase in stock densities of animals such as cattle and chickens as global demand for animal products increases. These animals produce huge amounts of methane during their digestive processes and this is released into the atmosphere. Up to 60% of all agricultural emissions of carbon come from this pastoral farming. Researchers at the University of Oxford found that cutting meat and dairy products from your diet could reduce an individual's carbon footprint from food by up to 73 per cent. 10 4. Rice paddies produce methane. T Half of the world’s population lives in cities, a share that is likely to reach 70 percent in 2050. 18 Cities are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. This is because; 1. Cities consume as much as 80 percent of energy production worldwide, due to the many industrial activities that take place within them. 2. As development proceeds, greenhouse gas emissions are driven less by industrial activities and more by the energy services required for lighting, heating, and cooling. 3. A lot of the cement produced creates greenhouse gasses It is not surprising that rich cities use more energy than poor cities and therefore emit more greenhouse gas emissions. however humans can also decrease co2 emissins by using renewbles, nuclear energy, bifules carbon free and hydrgoen fuel cells

Answer 11

Energy security: when there is an uninterrupted availability of energy at a national level and at an affordable price. All countries seek to achieve this; the most secure energy situation is where the national demand for energy can be completely satisfied by domestic sources. The more a country demands on imported energy, the more it is exposed to risks of an economic and geopolitical kind. aspects of energy security are: availability, accessibility , affordability, reliability energy is vital for country to function. it powers transport, lights, commercial agriculture; warms/cools homes and domestic appliances, modern communications, manufacturing. consumption of energy is measured in two ways: in per capita terms (as kilogrammes of oil equivalent or megawatt hours per person. In general, this measure rises with economic development) by energy intensity (calculating the units of energy used per unit GDP.) The fewer the units of energy, the more efficiently a country is using its energy supply. energy intensity values decrease with economic development Factors affecting per capita energy consumption: - physical availability - cost - standard of living - environmental priorities (of governments) for some, energy policy will be taking the cheapest route to meeting the nation's energy needs, regardless of the environmental costs. Others will seek to increase their reliance on renewable sources of energy; wile still other will have in place policies that raise energy efficiency and energy saving - climate/ weather. high levels of consumption in North America, Middle East and Australia reflect the extra energy needed to make the extremes of heat and cold more comfortable (at home, at work and in public places) - public perception. for some consumers, energy is perceived almost as a human right and therefore to be used with little or no regard for the environmental consequences. Others give priority to minimising the wastage of energy and maximising security - economic development !!!!! - technology USA and France rank second and tenth in the league table of energy consumers respectively, but total energy consumption in France is only one-tenth that of the USA. The difference is largely explained by differences in population - 318.9 million in the USA compared with 64.6 million in France. In per capita terms, the USA tops the rankings whilst France is placed sixth. USA, over three quarters of energy comes from fossil fuels and 10% renewable. French energy mix is different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy & 10% renewable. France is much less energy secure than the USA, because nearly half of its primary energy is imported. The USA is much more self-sufficient importing only 15%.

Answer 12

economic players / political players - governments national and OPEC members, TNCs environmental players - consumers social players- consumers non-renewable - fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) renewable - (wind, tidal, solar, hydroelectric, hydrothermal) energy pathways - route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. The routes involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grids. Biggest player with larges role: economic and political players - OPEC and National governments Russia - oil companies like Gazprom extract, process and refine oil to export. TNC = Shell in Nigeria - Oil spills + environmental degradation (loss of jobs due to pollution), wasteful, increased crime, OPEC - 13 countries, 81% of worlds known oil supply Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets 2012-2016 = flooding market caused a collapse in global oil prices Accused of driving prices too high ( developing countries unable to continue to develop economically) consumers plays a role, and significantly affects the producers : consumers - they create specific demands (transport, housing, electricity), dependent on the socio-economic status of the consumer environmentally concerned consumers - fossil fuels are finite, and the richer a country the more educated the consumers will be on subjects such as global warming etc.

Answer 13

The global drive to reduce carbon dioxide emissions must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of 'clean' energy, so decoupling economic growth from dependence on fossil fuels. Basically, this means widening the energy mix to include substantial inputs from both renewable and recyclable energy sources. The main sources of renewable energy today are hydro, wind, solar, geothermal and tidal. 1. costs and benefits economically, socially, and environmentally, and in terms of their contribution to energy security. (changing UK energy mix) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! write this advantages: renewable - wont run out no greenhouse gas emission disadvantages: Not all countries have renewable energy to exploit for geographic reasons: not all countries have coasts, strongly flowing rivers or climates with either long sunshine hours or persistently strong winds Partly because of this, there are very few, if any, countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy derived from fossil fuels. the relative financial costs of using non-renewable and renewable energy sources. When oil and gas prices are low, renewables become a more expensive option. the harnessing of renewables is not without environmental costs. River valleys have to be drowned to create HEP reservoirs, and large areas of land/the offshore zone are covered by solar or wind farms. While the majority of people believe that we should make greater use of renewable sources, most suddenly go off the idea when constructing a wind or solar farm near them is proposed (NIMBYism) paris 2016 agreement 2. ALSO In addition, those countries with high levels of energy consumption will have no option but to look to NUCLEAR energy to generate their electricity supply in a reasonably carbon-free manner. A possible plus here is that nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused, thereby making it into a recyclable energy source. Downsides of nuclear energy: risks to do with safety and security (accidents and terrorism) e.g. Fukushima Japan power plant the disposal of radioactive waste with an incredibly long decay life the technology involved is complex and therefore its use is only an option for developed countries although the operational costs are low, the costs of constructing and decommissioning power stations are high a world without use of fossil fuels is impossible, however a world deriving much of its energy from renewable and recyclable sources and using hydrogen cells does promise little disturbance of the carbon cycle, it also promises a longer human survival on Earth.

Answer 14

humans balancing it? making it worse: - 90% of anthropogenic (human-related) carbon release comes from burning fossil fuels according to IPCC -The 10% comes from is caused by land-use change such as deforestation, agricultural practices and land drainage. Ploughing and harvesting, having cattle, machinery that burns fossil fuels, fertilisers that contain fossil fuels. amazon deforestation -enhanced greenhouse effect - increasing global temp and more carbon in atmosphere urbanisation - Stores vegetation, are replaced or covered up e.g soils. making it better: ADAPTATION Water Conservation and Management Benefits = fewer resources used, less groundwater abstraction Costs and Risks = efficiency and conservation cannot match increased demands for water, Changing cultural habits of a large water footprint needs promotion and enforcement by governments, e.g. smart meters Resilient Agricultural Systems Benefits = Higher-tech, drought-tolerant species help resistance to climate change and increase in diseases help carbon dioxide sequestration and water storage: selective irrigation, crop rotation, reduced ploughing, agroforestry. Costs and risks = More expensive technology, seeds and breeds unavailable to poor subsistence farmers without aid High energy costs from indoor and intensive farming Genetic modification is still debated, but frequently used to crease resistant strains, e.g. rice and soya Growing food insecurity in many places adds pressure to find 'quick fixes' Land-use Planning Benefits = soft management: land-use zoning, building restrictions in vulnerable flood plains and low-lying coasts Costs = Public antipathy, abandoning high-risk areas and land-use resettling is often unfeasible, as in megacities such as Dhaka, Bangladesh or Tokyo-Yokohama Needs strong governance, enforcement and compensation Flood-Risk Management Benefits = hard-management traditionally used: localised flood defences, river dredging Simple changes can reduce flood risk, e.g. permeable tarmac Reduced deforestation and more afforestation upstream to absorb water and reduce downstream flood risk Costs and Risks = debate over fniding sources, especially in times of economic austerity Land owners may demand compensation for afforestation or 'sacrificial land' kept for flooding Constant maintenance is needed in hard management, e.g. dredging; lapses of management can increase risk Ingrained culture of 'techno-centric fixes': a disbelief that technology cannot overcome natural processes Solar Radiation Management Benefits = geoengineering involves ideas and plans to deliberately intervene in the climate system to counteract global warming The proposal is to use orbiting satellites to reflect some inward radiation back into space, rather like a giant sunshade It could cool the Earth within months and be relatively cheap compared with mitigation Costs and Risks = Untried and untested Would reduce but not eliminate the worst effects of GHGs: for example, it would not alter acidification Involves tinkering with a very complex system, which might have unintended consequences or externalities Would need to continue geoengineering for decades or centuries as there would be a rapid adjustment in the climate system if SRM stopped suddenly mix of soft- and hard-engineering actions. Some of those actions are low in technology and upfront costs and so, in theory, are possible options for developing countries. A change in traditional practices and customs is often required here. However, there are also actions requiring high inputs of capital and technology that only developed countries can contemplate. The whole of the solar radiation management strategy falls into this category. MITIGATION The long-term solution to the global warming crisis lies in rebalancing the carbon cycle, particularly reducing the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. None of the mitigation strategies is straightforward, except possibly afforestation. Successful implementation requires a society to change the way it thinks and acts. Some mitigation has a high technological tariff. Carbon taxation minimum price companies have to pay to emit carbon dioxide. Lower road taxes for low-carbon-emitting cars were scrapped in 2015. In 2015, oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels, hence the fracking debate Renewable Switching from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear power. Renewables provide intermittent electricity, while fossil fuels provide the continuous power essential for our current infrastructure. The Climate Change Levy in 2001 made to encourage renewable energy investment and use but was cut in 2015 Energy Efficiency The Green Deal scheme encouraged energy-saving improvements to homes, (efficient boilers & lighting, improved insulation.) It was scrapped in 2015. Afforestation Tree planting in the UK is increasing, helps carbon sequestration. It involves the Forestry Commission, charities such as the National Trust and the Woodland Trust, landowners and local authorities. The Big Tree Plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million new trees, mostly in urban areas. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Few actual geologic CCS projects exist globally, despite its potential. in 2015, the UK government cancelled its investment in full-scale projects at gas- and coal-powered plants in Scotland and Yorkshire.

Answer 15

energy pathways - route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grids. non-renewable - fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) renewable - (wind, tidal, solar, hydroelectric, hydrothermal) nuclear? recyclable economic players / political players - governments national and OPEC members, TNCs environmental players - consumers social players- consumers Biggest player with larges role: economic and political players - OPEC and National governments Russia - oil companies like Gazprom extract, process and refine oil to export. TNC = Shell in Nigeria - Oil spills + environmental degradation (loss of jobs due to pollution), wasteful, increased crime, OPEC - 13 countries, 81% of worlds known oil supply Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets 2012-2016 = flooding market caused a collapse in global oil prices Accused of driving prices too high ( developing countries unable to continue to develop economically) governments - developed more cautious about their energy mix - use more renewables. Paris agreement 2015 consumers also plays a smaller role, and significantly affects the producers : consumers - they create specific demands (transport, housing, electricity), dependent on the socio-economic status of the consumer environmentally concerned consumers - fossil fuels are finite, and the richer a country the more educated the consumers will be on subjects such as global warming etc.

Answer 16

fossil fuel meaning: costs and benefits ``` alternatives (renewable) hydro solar tidal wind geothermal advantages and disadvantages ``` recyclable energy - define nuclear costs and benefits biofuels -organic matter used as a fuel. reducing both the burning of fossil fuels and carbon dioxide emisions. The most widely grown biofuel crops include wheat, maize, grasses, soy beans and sugar cane. In the UK, the two main crops are oilseed rape and sugar beet. Most of these two crops are converted into ethanol or biodiesel, which are mainly used as a vehicle fuel. each hectare of farmland used to grow energy crops means a hectare less for growing much-needed food in an increasingly hungry world. They are supposedly carbon neutral, since the carbon dioxide they produce when burnt, is only that they took from the environment whilst growing, but there is uncertainty over how carbon neutral they actually are. (Since what was on the land before them, e.g. a forest, is destroyed.) Since the 1970s, Brazil has taken steps to diversify its energy mix and improve its energy security. This drive has been spearheaded by developing the country's considerable hydropower resources. More recently, it has added biofuels to its energy mix. Although less than 5% of Brazil's energy comes from renewable energy sources, 90% of new passenger vehicles sold in the country have flex-fuel engines that work using any combination of petrol and ethanol. This has led to a significant reduction in the country's carbon emissions. Large areas of central southern Brazil are now set aside for the cultivation of sugar cane and the subsequent production of ethanol. The result has been the displacement of other types of agriculture, particularly cattle rearing. The need to find replacement pastures has led to large-scale clearance of tropical rainforest in the Amazon Basin. This deforestation nullifies the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions gained from the increasing use of ethanol. Hydrogen Fuel Cells These combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. They will produce electricity for as long as hydrogen is supplied and never lose their charge. electric cars conclusion: which is the best? fossil fuels swill alkways be used, cheap reliable widen energy mix to use alternatives and fossil fuels together - less emissions than using only just fossil fuels

Answer 17

The global drive to reduce carbon dioxide emissions must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of 'clean' energy, so decoupling economic growth from dependence on fossil fuels. Basically, this means widening the energy mix to include substantial inputs from both renewable and recyclable energy sources. The main sources of renewable energy today are hydro, wind, solar, geothermal and tidal. 1. costs and benefits economically, socially, and environmentally, and in terms of their contribution to energy security. (changing UK energy mix) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! write this advantages: renewable - wont run out no greenhouse gas emission disadvantages: Not all countries have renewable energy to exploit for geographic reasons: not all countries have coasts, strongly flowing rivers or climates with either long sunshine hours or persistently strong winds Partly because of this, there are very few, if any, countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy derived from fossil fuels. the relative financial costs of using non-renewable and renewable energy sources. When oil and gas prices are low, renewables become a more expensive option. the harnessing of renewables is not without environmental costs. River valleys have to be drowned to create HEP reservoirs, and large areas of land/the offshore zone are covered by solar or wind farms. While the majority of people believe that we should make greater use of renewable sources, most suddenly go off the idea when constructing a wind or solar farm near them is proposed (NIMBYism) paris 2016 agreement 2. ALSO In addition, those countries with high levels of energy consumption will have no option but to look to NUCLEAR energy to generate their electricity supply in a reasonably carbon-free manner. A possible plus here is that nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused, thereby making it into a recyclable energy source. Downsides of nuclear energy: risks to do with safety and security (accidents and terrorism) e.g. Fukushima Japan power plant the disposal of radioactive waste with an incredibly long decay life the technology involved is complex and therefore its use is only an option for developed countries although the operational costs are low, the costs of constructing and decommissioning power stations are high a world without use of fossil fuels is impossible, however a world deriving much of its energy from renewable and recyclable sources and using hydrogen cells does promise little disturbance of the carbon cycle, it also promises a longer human survival on Earth.

Answer 18

carbon change - more threats. ``` 1. water cycle - give water for everyday use, meets basic human needs (cooking, cleaning, washing) changes in water cycle can lead to ENSO cycle, more extreme weather cycles happen. El Nino events trigger dry conditions in Australia, South East Asia, South East America, Indonesia and triggers wet flooding in Europe, Peru, Asian regions Monsoon. La Nina events cause the extreme version of normal events, trade winds blow from east to west on the pacific ocean. they happen every 5-7years. Drought leads to desertification which is change of once fertile land to desert like land. huge threats to people e.g Sahel Region drought due to location, over abstraction, overcultivation, overgrazing or crops loses vegetation cover, less soil moisture so carbon also released, less crops grown = agricultural famine and malnutrition of people esp babies and elderly, diseases, humanitarian crisis! Another example (developing country) Australian reoccurring Drought. 30% of its land that's rainfall deficient so not enough supply to meet demand. Australia also grew unsustainable almond farms. this caused a big dry in 2006. however due to careful water management plans, they managed to get by with the water they have so no desertification happened. ``` ecosystems impacted by water cycle AND carbon aswell. wetlands cover 10% of earth, key functions: trap pollutants maintain water quality, temporary water store, nursery for birds and fishes. if water cycle changes wetlands at risk of being lost = drought means higher transpiration levels water lost and also a carbon store as peat is exploited so more carbon in the air and less supply of water. forests also impacted : main source of interception. higher temp = less infiltration, less overland flow, less transpiration. pines and fir trees affected by fungal diseases = tree mortality = less water stored in trees and less carbon taken in. both water and carbon cycle affects ecosystems in a negative way. 2. Flooding is a threat to humans and ecosystems as well. 3. carbon cycle changes pose more threats. carbon is the building block of every organism. if change happens, climate change can increase, global sea and land temp will increases and will cause detrimental effects of people and the world. decline in ocean health caused by acidification and bleaching is resulting in changes to marine food webs. In particular, fish and crustacean stocks are both declining = less food for people who rely on this. fishing supports 500 million people (Selling, buying and eating) tourism also under threat esp where coral reefs, now showing signs of degradation, have traditionally attracted scuba-diving tourists. coral reefs are also a massive carbon store! The rising sea level is yet another consequence of climate change that threatens the very survival of tourism and its coastal infrastructure, as for example the Maldives.

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