Paper 2 Flashcards
(311 cards)
1
Q
What are the Approaches in Psychology?
A
Learning approaches - social learning theory and behaviourism, humanistic, biological, cognitive, psychodynamic
2
Q
What is the Behaviourist Approach?
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Studies behaviour that can be observed and measured using lab experiments. Believes behaviour is gained from conditioning. Key psychologists: BF Skinner, Ivan Pavlov
3
Q
What is Social Learning Theory?
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Believes behaviour is gained from imitation of ‘role models’ which gain rewards from behaviour. Built on Bandura’s work, uses lab experiments.
4
Q
What is the Cognitive Approach?
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Studies inner mental processes using lab experiments to build theoretical and computer models
5
Q
What are schema/schemata?
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Packages of information/patterns of thought gained from past experiences
6
Q
What is the Biological Approach?
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Believes all of psychology is biological first. Studies genes, nervous system, neurochemistry. Mainly uses twins for research.
7
Q
What is the Psychodynamic Approach?
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Studies the unconscious mind which drives thoughts (e.g. desires, anxieties) and actions. Key figures:Freud and Jung.
8
Q
What is the Humanistic Approach?
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Believes humans are self determining and have free will as opposed to the behaviourism and psychodynamic approaches. Key psychologists: Maslow, Carl Rodgers
9
Q
Name 3 key philosophers which contributed to the origins of psychology
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Descartes, Lockes and Darwin
9
Q
What did Descartes contribute as a philosopher and when did he live?
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Early 17th century, discovered mind and body were independent (dualism).
9
Q
What did Locke contribute as a philosopher and when did he live?
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Late 17th century, believes that experiences can be ONLY obtained through senses (empiricism)
10
Q
What did Darwin contribute as a philosopher and when did he live?
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19th century, believes human behaviour has evolved and is inherited
11
Q
What separates a hypothesis from being a prediction?
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Hypotheses are clear, precise, testable and more detailed
12
Q
Directional hypothesis
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Has a predicted outcome based on previous scientific evidence. Specifies what difference is predicted. Also referred to as a one tailed hypothesis.
13
Q
Non-directional hypothesis
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Does not predict an outcome due to lack of previous scientific evidence. States unspecified difference. Also referred to as a two tailed hypothesis.
14
Q
Extraneous variable
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All variables which are not the independent variable which turns into a confounding variable when it hinders the results of the study
15
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Internal reliability
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The extent which a measurement is consistent
16
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External reliability
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The extent which a measurement is consistent over time
17
Q
Classical conditioning
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Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and reflex response. Studied by Pavlov
18
Q
Pavlov’s dog
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Before conditioning, dog salivates at food. During conditioning, a bell is repeatedly rang when dog is given food. After conditioning, dog salivates when bell is rang
19
Q
What are the variables of the Pavlov’s dog experiment?
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Unconditioned response (reflex), unconditioned stimulus (causes reflex), neutral stimulus (no response pre-conditioning), conditioned response, conditioned stimulus (what neutral stimulus becomes)
20
Q
Null hypothesis
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Theorising that the experiment will result in no change
21
Q
Lab experiment
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Changing independent variables under controlled environment. More vulnerable to demand characteristics. High internal validity, low external validity.
22
Q
Field experiment
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Changing independent variables in a natural environment. Hard to gain consent of participants. Low internal validity, high external validity. No risk of demand characteristics.
23
Quasi experiment
Documenting differences in pre-existing characteristics and uses a naturally occuring independent variable
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Mundane realism
The extent that the experiment mirrors the real world so that results can be generalised
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Aim
Statement about what you intend to find out
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Operationalised
Defining variables in specific, measurable terms
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Internal validity
The extent in which an experiment is controlled for researchers to identify the cause (IV) for the dependent variable
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External validity
How far the study can be generalised across contexts e.g place, time, people
29
Ecological validity
Can it be generalised to other settings, places or environments?
30
Population validity
Can it be generalised to people different from the sample?
31
Historical/Temporal validity
Can it be generalised to people from different time periods?
32
Pilot study
Small scale version of study to identify flaws before investing money and time into a full scale study
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Confederate
Individual who is not a real participant and instructed how to behave. Participants believe they are also a participant
34
Experimental design
Procedures used to organise groups of participants
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Order effect
Where in repeated measures design, participants may change results between the time between 2 tests e.g become tired or have more practice from the first test
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Counterbalancing
ABBA design - half of the participants given 1 test first and the another test later and the opposite for the other half. Used to solve order effect.
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Repeated measures design
All participants take part in all tests and conditions. Cheaper and reduces effect from participant variables but vulnerable to order effect
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Independent groups/measures design
Participants are assigned to different groups under different independent variables. Stops order effect but vulnerable to extraneous variables from participant characteristics
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Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are matched by key variables. The two experience tests under different conditions. Rarely used due to time consumption but can be reduced by focusing on key variables.
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Random allocation
Assigning participants to groups using random techniques which have equal chance. Used to reduce participant variables.
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Little Albert Experiment
Watson and Rayner investigated classical conditioning in humans. Loud noise produced whenever Albert reached for rat, Albert cries. After repetition, Albert cries at rat and other furry animals without noise.
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Operant Conditioning
Learning through association with consequences. Studied by BF Skinner.
43
Positive reinforcement
Encouraging desired behaviour by giving reward when subject shows behaviour
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Negative reinforcement
Subject avoids undesired behaviour due to punishment received when behaviour is displayed
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Punishment
Unpleasant consequence in response to undesired behaviour
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Experimental condition
Conditions which are changed, opposite of control condition
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Control condition
Conditions which are the same as what would be experienced outside the experiment
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Demand characteristics
Participants perform what they believe is the directional hypothesis of the experiment
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Environmental determinism
All behaviour determined by past experiences which have been conditioned
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Systematic desensitation
Therapy based on classical conditioning to treat phobia. Replaces CR of anxiety for another CR
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Albert Bandura
Learning theorist who rejected behaviourism and experimented with humans. Opposed to Skinner, he believed that people could choose to perform desired behaviour. Developed Social Learning Theory.
52
Modelling
Observing a model perform a behaviour and imitating actions
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Mediational processes
Observer stores mental representations of model's behaviour and its consequences. Brain makes choice whether to imitate behaviour.
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Vicarious reinforcement
Observers more likely to imitate behaviour if the consequence was gaining a reward
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Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
1961 Children 3-5 observe an adult's behaviour towards the Bobo doll for 10 mins in person and on tv; calm and aggressive. Children copied the behaviour of the adults.
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What are the steps in mediational processes?
Attention, retention (memory), motor reproduction (being able to imitate), motivation (will to imitate)
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Natural experiment
IV is pre-determined by event and DV is gathered after event. IV cannot be changed due to ethicality or impracticality. E.g. IV may be children with divorced or undivorced parents
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What are the strengths and limitations of natural and quasi experiments?
They allow research where IVs can't be manipulated but cause and effect is not certain and participants cannot be randomly allocated therefore bias may occur
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Example of SLT: Andsager at al
Similarity to a model on an advertisement related to the message's effectiveness
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Example of SLT: Fox and Bailenson
Similar and dissimilar virtual models to the participants either exercise or loiter. Participants more likely to copy similar models.
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Define an experiment
A research method where conclusions can be drawn from observing a manipulated variable and the effect it causes
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Example of a natural experiment: Charlton et al
Research introduced TV programmes to an island which had no TVs before. Found little difference in behaviour.
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Investigator effects
When investigator's behaviour/presence/appearance affects data e.g. researchers in suits more respected than casual clothing
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Experimental realism
Participant pays attention to task instead of researcher if task is sufficiently engaging. Solves investigator effect.
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Situational variables
Features of a research's situation that affects participants behaviour e.g. order effect
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Opportunity/convenient sample
Participants selected by people who are most easily available at the time of the study. Quick but biased due to self-selection and participant/ecological variables
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Random sample
Everyone of the target population has an equal chance of being selected to be a participant. Provides more accurate generalisation but biased if individuals refuse participation.
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Stratified sample
Set amount of people in an identified subgroup are selected to be participants according to their frequency in the population. All groups represented fairly but limited by what subgroups researchers identify.
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Systematic sample
Every nth participant is selected. Less biased than opportunity but can become biased if individuals refuse participation.
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Volunteer/self-selecting sample
Participants made up of solely volunteers. Quick and easy but biased due to characteristics of volunteers e.g. people who volunteer may be more social and outgoing
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Computer analogy
Comparing the human brain to a computer
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Cognitive Approach: Theoretical and computer models
Simplified, usually pictoral, representation of mental processes e.g. input-process-output
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Why is the Cognitive Approach more credible than Behaviourism or SLT?
Considers inner mental processes (as opposed to Behaviourism) and has more research backing
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Practical application of the Cognitive Approach
AI, robotics, treatment for mental health issues e.g. OCD, gambling addiction (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy = CBT)
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BPS
British Psychological Society requires all registered psychologists to follow a code of ethics and conduct in research
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Informed consent
Participants must be given a basic description of the study to decide whether to participate
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Deception
When information given to participants is incorrect or withheld during the study. Can be compensated for by debriefing
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Protection from harm
Participants should not experience negative effects after study e.g. embarrassment, pain, trauma. If unintended negative effects occur during the study, the study must be stopped
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Confidentiality and anonimity
Data Protection Act protects participants personal information. Researchers must ensure participants identity is protected at all times.
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Right to withdraw
Participants must be made aware of their rights and receive no negative effects for withdrawing
81
Cost-benefit analysis
Judging whether the study's benefits outweigh the costs (negatives)
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Ethics committees
Approves studies before they start, carrying out cost-benefit analysis. Includes both psychologists and non-psychologists however their opinions are subjective.
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Monoxygotic Twins
Shares 100% of DNA - identical twins
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Dizygotic Twins
Shares 50% of DNA (same as siblings) - non-identical twins
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Concordance rate
Probability that two people with shared genes will develop the same characteristics. Diseases are more often specifically investigated for concordance rates.
86
Genotype
Individual's genetic makeup
87
Phenotype
The way genes are expressed as a product of the genotype's interaction with environment
88
Wilhelm Wundt
Established first psych lab 1875, used introspection and tried to be more objective in psychology. Believed in reductionism
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Introspection
Examining inner thoughts (feelings, emotions, sensations) in a controlled setting.
90
Covert observations
Observing people without their knowledge as being overt will likely change data. May need debrief for ethicality but provides natural behaviour.
91
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which other observers agree with an observation (approval of peers), improving reliability.
92
Non-participant observation
Observer is separate from the people being observed and do not interact with participants. May have observer bias but likely to be objective as they are detached from participants. Doesn't have as much depth as participant observation.
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Observer bias
Observer's expectations affect how they perceive behaviour. Reduces validity.
94
Overt observation
Participants are aware they are being observed. Overcomes ethical issues but validity of data is at risk.
95
Participant observation
Observations made by a participant in the behaviour. Objectivity affected and investigator effect may occur but provides data with more depth.
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Behavioural categories
Dividing a target behaviour (e.g. aggression, stress) into subsets of behaviours
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Event sampling
Counting the amount of times a behaviour occurs during observation.
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Structured observation
When researchers use systems to organise observations e.g. behavioural categories, sampling procedures. Important parts may be missed depending on variables decided but more objective.
99
Time sampling
Observer records behaviour every x second/minute etc.
100
Observational design
How observational studies are conducted; naturalistic/ controlled, overt/covert, participant/non-participant, structured/unstructured
101
Unstructured observations
Recording all relevant behaviour without system. Useful for new areas of research but may be too much to record so relevant behaviour can be missed.
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What are the criteria for sorting behavioural categories?
Only include directly observable behaviour, cover all possible behaviours, do not let categories overlap
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Reductionism
Breaking down into basic elements without sacrificing properties
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Interview
Research method involving real-time interaction with another individual and results in a collection of (normally qualitative) data
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Interviewer bias
Effect of an interviewer's unconscious behaviour on respondent's behaviour
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Social desirability bias
When respondent distorts their answers to portray themselves better/more in line with social expectations due to the presence of others.
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Structured interview
Questions for interview are designed in advance. Easier to compare data and repeat with others but biased and limited to interviewer's choice of questions. Needs pilot interviews to test/improve question format
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Unstructured interview
Interview has initial aims and questions and asks questions based on respondent's answers. More detailed but less easy to compare data and needs well-trained interviewers.
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Pros and cons of self-report techniques
Allow researchers to collect data on feelings and cognitive processes but people can lie, feel unclear about their feelings and sample needs representativeness
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Pros and cons of questionnaires
Quick and cheap = lots of data, anonymous = more honest and reduce social desirability bias but completed by self-selecting respondents.
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What are the principles of writing questionnaire questions?
Questions must be clear, avoid bias (e.g. asking how much do you like ... instead of what do you think of ...) and plan how to analyse the data beforehand
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Open questions
Can't be answered with yes or no
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Closed questions
| Meaning and evaluation
Only answered with yes or no, produces quantitative data which is easily comparable but provides no nuance which may lead to invalid data e.g. respondent does not know so they answer yes
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Acquiescence bias
The preference to answer yes to questions
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Nervous System
Coordinates actions and sensory information by transmitting signals throughout the body. Split into the Central and Peripheral Nervous System.
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CNS
Consists of brain and spinal cord. Controls and regulates behaviour after receiving info from Peripheral Nervous System.
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Brain functions
Provides conscious awareness and processes information. Receives info from sensory neurons
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Spinal Cord functions
Responsible for reflexes and relays info to effectors
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Peripheral Nervous System
All the nerves not apart of the CNS. Split into the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System.
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Somatic Nervous System
Maintains communication between CNS and the rest of the body (PNF) and transmits back from the brain to effectors using sensory and motor neurons. Enables reflex actions.
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Correlation/Effect size
The extent of an association between two variables (co-variables): either zero, negative or positive correlation
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Correlation Co-efficient
Number between -1.00 and +1.00 to measure association between co-variables
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Intervening Variable
A variable that explains the association between co-variables (positive correlation between ice cream sales and violence may be explained by temperature)
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Strengths and limitations of correlation scattergraphs
Makes it easier to compare large quantity of data and identifying trends however decimals rounded losing detail
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Autonomic Nervous System
Maintains homeostasis for survival. Acts unconsciously. Travels only through motor pathways. Split into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Prepares body for 'fight or flight' response. Increases heart rate and blood pressure, releases adrenaline.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
Prepares body to rest and digest. Decreases heart rate and blood pressure.
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Case study
Detailed study of an entity/event. Rich depth and good for rare cases however cause and effect is not certain as it is an observation and retrospective
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Content analysis
Study where behaviour in written/verbal material is observed. High ecological validity however observer bias may misinterpret the data. Focuses on what is said over meaning. Structured observation, high reproducibility
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Meta-analysis/review
Researcher combines results from similar studies to conclude an effect size (numerical representation of correlation). Large sample so high external validity however some studies may be hard to compare due to the research designs.
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Standard deviation
How far values deviate from the mean
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Levels of measurement
Nominal (quantitative data sorted into categories), ordinal (ratings), interval, ratio
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Pros and cons of using mean
Uses all data but can be distorted by an extreme value
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Pros and cons of using median
Not affected by extreme values but not as inclusive as mean
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Pros and cons of using mode
Doesn't account distribution of data (e.g. if there are lots of the same numbers) but easy to find and only method that can be used for nominal data
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Normal distribution on scattergram
Bell shape
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Positive skewed distribution
Most scores are bunched towards the left. Typically lower scores. High mean, low mode.
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Negative skewed distribution
Most scores are bunched towards the right. Typically higher scores. Low mean, high mode.
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Peer review/refereeing
Other experts in the same field judge scientific quality of work. Works to avoid flawed research being spread into the public. Helps let government allocate research funding, decide whether to publish works and assesses how well universities should be funded.
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Pros and cons of peer review via the internet
Many reviews = more reliable but non-experts can review the work so quality is lost
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Pros and cons of normal peer review
Ensures quality but hard to find experts to review and journals prefer to publish positive results or results that preserve the status quo leading to bias
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Dendrite
Branches on a neuron's cell body which recieves input from other neurons
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Cell body (of neuron)
Includes nucleus, maintains neuron's structure and provides energy to drive activities
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Nodes of Ranvier
Small gaps which break up myelin sheath. Speeds up transmission of impulses.
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Axon
Carries impulses away from the cell body
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Myelin Sheath
Fatty layer along axon which protects axon and speeds up transmission of impulses.
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Charge of a neuron
Negatively charged when resting, positively charged when activated by a stimulus to create electrical impulse which travels down neuron
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Sensory neuron
Transmits information between receptors (PNS) to CNS. Cell body is in the middle of the axon. Long dendrites, short axons.
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Relay neuron
Transmits information from neurons to neurons. Short dendrites and axons.
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Motor neuron
Transmits information from the CNS to muscle effectors or glands. Short dendrites and long axons.
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How are signals transmitted in neurons differently from synapses?
Electrically in neurons, chemically in synapses.
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Synaptic vesicles
Stimulates release of a neurotransmitter. Located in presynaptic terminal (end of neuron).
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Neurotransmitter
Chemicals that diffuse across synapses to reach the next neuron via the postsynaptic site
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Excitation
Increases positive charge of neuron after neurotransmitter travels to other neuron. Increases likelihood that neuron will pass on impulse.
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Inhibition
Increases negative charge of neuron after neurotransmitter travels to other neuron. Decreases likelihood that neuron will pass on impulse.
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Endocrine System
Controls vital functions by secreting hormones into the bloodstream. Affects any cells that have receptors for specific hormones. Works with nervous system.
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Systematic Review
Findings from a range of studies are collected to give an overview of an area of knowledge
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What flaws may a pilot study identify?
Ambiguities (i.e., unusual things), confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised
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What is the sign test for?
Test to determine whether the difference between two samples of data is significant to be statistically meaningful and support the hypothesis
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How to do sign test
Find difference between each pair of data, count how many have a positive and negative difference, reject data with no differences, S value = lowest frequency of positive or negative difference, compare S to critical value (depends on hypothesis and probability which is usually 0.05) if less than or equal = significant
161
What is the mission statement from the BPS
To be responsible for the development, promotion and application of psychology for the public good
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Economic psychology/behavioural economics
Researches effects of social, cognitive, emotional factors on economic decisions e.g. ensuring development of children, improving eyewitness memory, encouraging to buy healthy products
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Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
Rejects determinism and considers choices as opposed to behaviourism. Lab experiments = high internal validity, low external validity. Bobo Doll study only used children = low populational validity. Practical application in violence on TV. Application for social workers who work with abused kids who may act more violent.
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Aim, procedure, findings, conclusion of Wundt
Wanted to record thoughts and sensations and analyse them. Highly trained assistants given stimulus e.g. light, metronome and report feelings using introspection. Concluded that conscious processes could be broken down into fundamentals (thoughts, images and feelings) using reductionism
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Loftus and Palmer
1974, showed car crash and asked participants to recall car crash asking questions with different verbs. Found that car crash was described differently depending on language. Showed that eye-witness testimonies were biased.
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Evaluation of Wundt
Method of introspection = subjective and differed from each person. Self report = unreliable. Observation only used so cause and effect not defined. Helped psychology develop as a valid experimental science. Innovative for its time.
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Features of Cognitive Approach
Computer analogy, introspection, mediational processes, inference, lab experiments, memory research, cognitive neuroscience, schema, theoretical models. MRI and PET scans for cognitive neuroscience.
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Evaluation of cognitive approach
Machine reductionism - ignores influence of emotions. Lab experiments. Considers inner mental processes unlike behaviourism. Practical application. Inference not high internal validity.
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Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Broca found that frontal lobe was connected to speech in the 19th century
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Evaluation of biological approach
Lab experiments. Ignores emotions and environmental effects on behaviour (reductionist). Research support (see McGuffin). Practical application for drug treatment.
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McGuffin
Supports twin studies. Found concordance rate of depression of twins was 46% for monoxygotic and 20% for dizygotic
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Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
Mind split into conscious, preconscious, subconscious, unconscious. Unconscious forces determine our behaviour. Childhood influences adulthood. Abnormal behaviour as a result of mental conflict. Contrasts behaviourism and excludes empirical evidence.
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Conscious mind
Part of mind we are aware of. Thoughts/ideas easily accessed.
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Preconscious mind
Thoughts/ideas we may be aware of during dreams or parapraxes
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Unconscious mind
Thoughts/ideas we are unaware of but directs our behaviour via aggressive (Thanatos) and sexual instincts (Libido). Never consciously accessed but can be found via talking therapy. Has biological drives. Repressed threatening memories.
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Parapraxes
Slip of the tongue revealing deeper ideas
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Structure of personality
Id, superego, ego
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Id
Operates on unconscious drives and instincts (the pleasure principle). Entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs.
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Ego
Develops around 2 yrs. Reduces and mediates demands of Id and Superego via defense mechanisms. Operates on reality principle
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Superego
Formed at the end of the phallic stage (around 5 yrs) operates on morality principle and decides whats right and wrong. Bases itself off of same sex parent’s morals. Punishes the Id through guilt.
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Psychosexual stages
Oral (birth to 1 yr), Anal (1-3yrs), Phallic (3-6yrs), Latency (6-puberty), Genital (puberty+). Stages of conflicts which need to be fulfilled. If there is too much or too little of something then fixations are formed.
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Oral (Psychosexual stage)
From birth to 1yr, desire is mother’s breast. If unfulfilled, leads to oral fixation e.g. smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical personality
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Anal (Psychosexual stage)
1-3yrs, childs gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. If unfulfilled, leads to either anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy)
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Phallic (Psychosexual stage)
3-6yrs, focus on genital area. If unfulfilled, develops phallic personality (narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual)
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Latency (Psychosexual stage)
6-puberty Ensures that earlier conflicts are repressed
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Genital (Psychosexual stage)
Puberty onwards, Sexual desires become conscious from puberty. If unfulfilled, difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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Little Hans case study
Little Hans was a 5yr old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse. Freud suggested that his phobia was a displaced fear of his father castrating him and that horses represented his real fear
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Oedipus complex
In the phallic stage, Freud claims that boys develop feelings for their mother and a murderous hatred of their father. Fears that father will castrate them and takes on identity of father.
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Electra complex
Freud claims that girls experience penis envy, desire their father and hate their mother. Gives up their desire eventually and replaces penis envy with desire of a baby and takes on identity of their mother.
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Strength of psychodynamic approach
Practical application in real life. Introduced idea of psychotherapy forerunning modern talking therapies, applying repressed memories and dream meanings. Draws attention to connection between childhood and later development. Explains personality development, psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity.
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Limitations of psychodynamic approach
Regarded as inappropriate for more serious mental disorders - for schizophrenia, they may be unable to articulate their thoughts. Much of the theory is untestable - Karl Popper argues that it is not open to empirical testing as many theories about the unconscious level. Only uses case studies and not universally applicable. Deterministic based on childhood.
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Defense mechanisms of psychodynamic approach
Repression (blocking unacceptable thoughts), denial, displacement
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Assumptions about the humanistic approach
Humans are self determining, active agents and unique. Challenges determinism. Accepts that we are subject to many conditions in choices but humans still have free will. Developed 1950s following Maslow and Rogers. Strives towards personal growth. Rejects scientific method and focuses on case studies
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow interested in motivation. Described hierarchy of needs to be met for the goal of self-actualisation. From the bottom - physiological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualisation
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Rogers addition to Maslow’s concepts
For personal growth, an individual’s concept of self must match their ideal self. Cannot achieve self-actualisation if gap is too big. To reduce gap, developed client-centred therapy/counselling to help cope with everyday living provides unconditional positive regard where the person has not received it. Claimed adult problems stem from childhood and lack of unconditional love
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Humanistic approach strengths
Rejects reductionism and advocates holism (considers the whole person rather than one aspect) which has more validity as it considers real world context. Positive and praised for focusing to person. Opposes Freud who believes we exist between “common unhappiness and absolute despair”. Humanistic see people as good and able to achieve their full potential. Practical application of hierarchy of needs to workplaces
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Humanistic approach limitations
Reductionist approaches more scientific and possess evidence; humanistic has few concepts that can be measured. Culturally biased as ideas such as freedom, personal growth and autonomy are limited to individualist cultures and the theories are therefore a product of the culture and not universally applicable.
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Rogers concept of self
1951, believed that people have basic needs - positive regard of others and feelings of self worth. Suggested that we have 3 selves which need to integrate for self-actualisation - the self concept, the ideal self, the real self
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The self concept (Rogers)
The way that you perceive yourself, affected by self esteem. Develops in childhood from interaction with our parents and peers. Poor self concept leads to underestimation of capabilities.
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The ideal self (Rogers)
Self that you wish to be and are aiming to become. Doesn't correspond with self concept
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The real self (Rogers)
Who you actually are and not what you think you are or wish to be. Subjective and hard to demonstrate, everyone will perceive a person differently. Working out the real self is problematic
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Conditions of worth (Rogers)
Requirements that the individual feels they need to be loved by
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Conditional positive regard (Rogers)
When people are only accepted by others if they do what they want them to. The opposite of unconditional positive regard. Stems from being told by parents or treatment of siblings
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Client centred therapy (Rogers) with evaluation
Therapist encourages person to seek their own solution, providing unconditional positive regard, increasing the person's feelings of self worth and reducing incongruence. Praised as forward looking and effective but may only be a successful treatment in mild psychological conditions
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Research around humanistic approach
Harter et al (1996) found that teenagers who have to do certain things to meet parents approval often have low self esteem and that those who create a 'false self' pretending to be someone that their parents would love are more likely to develop depression.
Nevis (1983) found that in China, belongingness needs were more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined by contribution to the community so Maslow's hierarchy suffers from cultural bias
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Localisation theory
The idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities
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Motor Cortex
Frontal lobe, responsible for voluntary movement. Regions of cortex assigned to parts of body
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Somatosensory Cortex
Parietal lobe, processes sensory information from skin. Regions of cortex assigned to parts of body.
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Visual Cortex
Occipital lobe, processes visual information. Each hemisphere proccesses visual information on the opposite side e.g. right brain sees left visual information
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Auditory Cortex
Temporal lobe, processes sound information, receives input from both ears but most strongly from opposite ear
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Broca's area
Frontal lobe of left hemisphere, involved in speech production. Damage results in Broca's aphasia where speech becomes slow and mixed up
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What are the language centres of the brain
Broca's area and Wernicke's area
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Wernicke's area
Temporal lobe of left hemisphere, involved in language comprehension. Damage results in Wernicke's aphasia where fluent words are produced but sentences dont mean anything/don't make sense
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Holistic theory
Idea that functions are not confined to specific areas but spread out through the brain. Research support from Lashley (1950) showing that higher cognitive functions are spread throughout the brain
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Left hemisphere of brain
Responsible for language and logic. Includes Broca's and Wernicke's area.
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Right hemisphere of brain
Responsible for spatial awareness, creativity, emotion and visual-motor tasks. Involved in recognising faces and understanding spatial relationships
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Contralateral control
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. Allows both sides of brain to share comprehensive understanding and behaviour
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Support for localisation theory/Limitations of holistic theory
Neurosurgical cases where areas of brain removed e.g. lobotomy often changes personality/behaviour. MRI and PET scans show activity for certain tasks e.g. Broca's when speech produced. Phineas Gage's personality changed after extreme damage to his frontal lobe suggesting they are linked
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Limitations of localisation theory/Support for holistic theory
Lashley's equipotentiality theory showed that when parts of rats brains were removed, their ability to learn and remember a maze didn't depend on the area of brain removed but the amount of tissue removed. Suggested that higher cognitive processes are holistically distributed. Case study of Phineas Gage not generalisable and Gage was able to recover his ability to socialise/personality suggesting brain plasticity. Dick and Tremblay (2016) proposed language is widely distributed and not limited to Broca and Wernicke's area
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Brain plasticity
When the brain reorganises itself to serve a function after damage to a specific area of the brain - challenges strict localisation
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Lateralisation
Specialisation of functions between the two hemispheres of the brain. Both perform many functions but some are dominant in one hemisphere. Allows for efficient division of tasks
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Corpus Callosum
Allows communication between two hemispheres
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Support for lateralisation
In Sperry's research, people with split-brain surgery to treat epilepsy (severing corpus callosum) shown words. Words on right could be described verbally as left hemisphere controls language. Words on left couldn't describe verbally but able to select matching object showing non-verbal recognition and visual-spatial tasks.
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Support against lateralisation
Brain plasticity shows function can be redistributed to other areas. Sperry's research has low generalisability as his ptcpts had undergone a rare procedure and their brain may function differently to a typical brain
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Brain plasticity
Brain’s ability to adapt and change in response to new experiences, learning or after injury. Forms new neural connections. Most prominent in early childhood up until age of 3. Starts to slow down after age 25.
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Research supporting brain plasticity
Maguire et al (2000) found London taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampus (controls spatial navigation). Longer time working = more pronounced changes.
Draganski et al (2006) found medical students had larger posterior hippocampus and parietal cortex after studying for exams
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Limitations of brain plasticity
Phantom limb syndrome creates sensations/pain in missing limb due to maladaptive neural reorganisation. Drug use and age related cognitive decline causes brain to form harmful adaptations e.g. when retired people no longer have a stimulus for their brain they are more likely to develop dementia
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Seasonal brain changes
Barber et al (2006) shows some animal’s brain structures change in size depending on the season e.g. squirrel’s hippocampus increases during winter/autumn when they have to remember where they buried food
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Brain plasticity after trauma to brain
Brain attempts to restore functions that were lost. Forms new connections to compensate for damaged areas. Those with more brain connections (higher intelligence) recover from brain trauma faster. Most effective immediately after injury but can last over months/years
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What does the brain do to recover after trauma?
Neural reorganisation - unaffected areas take on new functions
Axonal sprouting - new nerve endings grow to reconnect neurons and form new pathways
Recruitment of homologous areas - opposite hemisphere takes on *some* functions of lost hemisphere
Synaptic pruning - strengthening of most used connections and pruning weaker ones to efficiently recover functions.
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Evaluation of functional recovery
Practical application in physiotherapy and occupational therapy which stimulate the brain to promote functional recovery e.g. constraint-induced movement therapy encourages use of affected limbs. However, case studies of brain injury may not be generalisable as most of the population has not suffered brain trauma
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Why do those with higher intelligence or engagement in mental activities recover from brain injuries better?
(Stern 2002) suggests that those with higher cognitive reserve recover better as they are able to use alternative neural networks.
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fMRI
Detects change in blood flow. Areas of more activity require more oxygen and therefore more blood. Provides detailed image of brain structure and activation maps
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EEG
Electrodes attached to the scalp record electrical activity. Measures brain’s overall activity. Used to detect brain wave patterns e.g. in sleep and in abnormal behaviours e.g. seizures. Produces graph
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ERPs (Event-Related Potentials)
Derived from EEG data, isolate brain responses to stimuli. Presents same stimulus and averages EEG data to it. Linked patterns to sensory/cognitive/motor events
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Post-Mortem Examination
Dissecting brain after death to study structure and identify abnormalities by comparing to a neurotypical brain.
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Evaluation of fMRIs
High Spatial Resolution - detailed image of brain’s structure and the specific areas involved
Poor Temporal Resolution - has a time lag of 3-4 seconds making it difficult to capture fast dynamic processes
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Evaluation of EEGs
High Temporal Resolution - detects activity in real time, useful for studying rapid brain responses
Poor spatial resolution - doesn’t pinpoint where brain activity is originating
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Evaluation of ERPs
More precise measurement of brain activity than EEGs but cannot locate activity of brain similar to EEGs
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Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination
Can identify abnormalities related to rare conditions but causation cannot be established as brain is inactive and examination is retrospective
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Biological rhythms
Cyclical changes in body’s physical processes. Regulated by internal clocks, influenced by external cues like light
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Circadian rhythms
Around 24 hours e.g. the sleep/wake cycle. Influenced by endogenous pacemakers (internal clocks like the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus) and exogenous zeitgerbers (external cues)
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Sleep/Wake Cycle
Follows pattern where people are awake in the day and sleep at night, regulated by light cues and internal mechanisms e.g. release of melatonin from pineal gland
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Siffre's study
Lived in a cave for long periods without exposure to natural light or external time cues (clocks). His sleep/wake cycle extended by an hour per day to around 25-30 hours. Shows that natural circadian rhythm persists but can lengthen
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Aschoff and Wever
1976, placed participants in WW2 bunker without natural light. Most maintained circadian rhythm of 24-25 hours. Supports that circadian rhythm is mostly internally regulated
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Folkard et al
1985, artificial time condition study. Forced participants to follow a 22 hour day schedule but most could not fully adapt. Shows that natural circadian rhythm is difficult to override
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Strengths of the circadian rhythm
Applied to shift work to show that it causes circadian misalignment where internal clocks are out of sync with external cues and leads to reduced alertness, sleep disorders and health risks. Application to medical treatment e.g. chronotherapy where drugs are more effective when taken in consideration to biological rhythms e.g. heart attacks likely in morning so medication effective in evening. Application to schools - teenagers have a naturally delayed circadian rhythm meaning it would be beneficial for attendance and performance to move the school day forward however it is not practiced due to impracticality for adults
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Limitations of the circadian rhythm
Not all people have the same circadian rhythm. Duffy et al (2001) found that there are morning and evening types suggesting that circadian rhythms are not uniform and people cope with shift work and jet lag differently
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Infradian rhythms
Biological rhythms with a cycle length longer than 24 hours. Includes menstrual cycle and seasonal changes in behaviour and mood e.g. Seasonal Affective Disorder
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Menstrual cycle
Infradian rhythm, lasts ~28 days. Regulated by interaction of hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) when pregnancy does not occur, hormones drop and lead to menstruation.
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Stern and McClintock
1998, Shows menstrual cycle affected by ext factors e.g. other women. Found pheromones from sweat can affect timing of cycles causing synchronised periods which had evolutionary advantage. Criticised for small sample sizes and lack of control of confounding variables as stress, diet and lifestyle also effect it. Replications inconsistent.
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Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Depression following seasonal pattern, typically in winter as daylight hours shorter and circadian rhythms disrupted due to reduced light affecting melatonin and serotonin production
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Application of Infradian rhythms
Light therapy developed to treat SAD from understanding. Artificial light exposure increases production of melatonin and serotonin. Some studies report effectiveness but some report placebo effects.
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Ultradian rhythms
Biological rhythms with cycle shorter than 24 hours. Examples include sleep cycle (not sleep-wake cycle)
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Sleep cycle
Lasts 90 mins each period. Stage 1: light sleep, easily woken.
Stage 2: deeper sleep, has bursts of brain activity (sleep spindles).
Stage 3: start of deep sleep (slow wave sleep).
Stage 4: deepest stage, difficult to wake, body growth and repair occurs.
Stage 5: Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. Most dreaming occurs, resembles activity of waking but body is paralysed.
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Strengths of Ultradian rhythms
Research increases understanding of sleep disorders and mental health e.g. disruptions of REM linked to depression and anxiety. Led to methods of improving sleep hygiene and CBT for insomnia.
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Limitations of Ultradian rhythms
Individual differences not accounted for - some have varying times of sleep cycles Tucker et al (2007) finds individual differences in lab conditions suggesting biological factors effect. Research in sleep labs may lack ecological e.g. may not sleep naturally due to electrodes disrupting patterns
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Endogenous pacemakers
Internal biological clocks that regulate biological rhythms. Most important is suprachiasmatic nucleus
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Suprachaiasmatic nucleus
In the hypothalamus, controls the sleep/wake cycle. Receives info about light levels through optic nerve even if eyes are closed. Matches rhythms to environment
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Ralph et al
1990, SCN cells from mutant hamsters with 20 hour sleep/wake cycle given to normal hamsters. Shows SCN was responsible for body's internal clock.
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Morgan
1995, removed SCN from hamsters. Their circadian rhythm disappeared and they were subsequently killed by predators as they did not sleep at night.
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Pineal gland in sleep
Regulated by SCN, when low light levels detected, signals pineal gland to release melatonin.
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Endogenous pacemakers evaluation
Shouldn't be separated from exogenous zeitgebers to avoid over-simplification. Animal studies on SCN are highly inethical as they involve invasive procedures although it had useful insights into human biology
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Exogenous zeitgebers
External cues that regulate biological rhythms. Prime examples: light, social cues (meals, work)
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Exogenous zeitgebers evaluation
People in polar regions with long periods of day/dark still have regular sleep = social cues influence. Siffre supports that lack of light disrupts sleep/wake but has low generalisability as it has a small sample. Helps to develop light therapy
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Thematic analysis
Qualitative method to find themes in data. Searches for underlying ideas. Low reproducibility. Often used on interviews and open-ended responses
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Steps in thematic analysis
Familiarisation (researcher reads and re-reads data), generating initial codes (summarised and labelled into codes), searching for themes (similar codes grouped), reviewing themes (checking themes), defining and naming themes, writing up (quotes used in analysis to support each theme)
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Evaluation of thematic analysis
Can be used with many types of data compared with quantitative methods, it requires a consistent step-by-step analysis improving reliability. However, it is time consuming to analyse the data and is subjective so personal bias can affect results. Personal bias may be reduced by using multiple coders and checking with participants
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Test-retest reliability
Checks if the same test gives similar results when the same people do the test under similar conditions and different times. High correlation = high test-retest reliability. Atleast .80 is considered reliable
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Inter-Observer Reliability/Inter-Rater Reliability
Checks if different observers/raters give similar results when watching the same event/behaviour. Inter-rater used for written tests. Measured using Cohen’s kappa for categorical data and ICC for continuous data.
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Cronbach’s alpha
Measures internal consistency in questionnaires. High alpha value = items measuring the same thing
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Split-half reliability
Divides test into 2 halves and compared halves to check consistency
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Kuder-Richardson formulas
Used to check internal consistency in tests with dichotomous items (questions with 2 possible answers e.g. yes/no, true/false)
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How to improve reliability of observations
Involve more than one observer, clearly describe behaviours, do training and calibration sessions to ensure all observers act similarly, use observation check-list.
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How to improve reliability of experiments
Keep procedures and conditions consistent, use randomisation and counterbalancing, run pilot tests, use single-blind or double-blind procedures.
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Face validity
How much a test looks like it is measuring what it claims to. Based on judgement and not statistics.
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WEIRD participants
Western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic participants.
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Concurrent validity
Checks if new test does not measure the same thing as an existing test. Both tests given to same people and scores are compared. Strong correlation = high concurrent validity
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Triangulation
Collecting data from different sources to check accuracy.
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Reflexivity
Where the researcher reflects on how their own beliefs/biases affect the research
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Parametric tests
Uses data from population with a normal distribution. Assumes frequency of subgroups of population are equal. More strict, allows interval, ratio and continuous data. Includes t-tests and Pearson's correlation coefficient.
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Non-parametric tests
Make little to no assumptions about population distribution, may use data with skewed distribution. Often rely on ranking and other non-numerical forms of data. Includes ordinal and nominal data. Includes Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.
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What is the chi-squared test used for?
Used for categorical data, determines significant association between categorical variables.
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What is the Mann-Whitney U test used for?
Used to compare 2 independent groups when the measurement of data is ordinal or continuous and not normally distributed. Non-parametric alternative to t-test
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What is the unrelated t-test used for?
Compares means of 2 INDEPENDENT groups when measurement is continuous and normally distributed
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What is the Wilcoxon signed-rank test used for?
Non-parametric test comparing 2 paired groups. Used when data is paired and non-normally distributed
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What is the related t-test used for?
Compares means of 2 RELATED groups when measurement is continuous and normally distributed. Used in paired observation
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What is paired observation?
When data is from the same participant under different conditions e.g. before and after weight loss.
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What is Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (Spearman's Rho) used for?
Non-parametric. Measures rank correlation/how well relationship can be described using monotonic function (either only increases or decreases)
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What is Pearson's correlation coefficient (Pearson's r) used for?
Parametric measure of linear correlation between 2 continuous variable. Assesses strength and direction of correlation between variables.
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Type I Error (False positive)
Researchers incorrectly reject null hypothesis when it is true. Concludes significant effect when there isn't one. Usually increases the chance of type II error. More likely when data has confidence of 90% in research hypothesis and 10% in null hypothesis
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Type II Error (False negative)
Researchers accept null hypothesis when it is actually false. Detects significant effect when there isn't one. Reducing this increases the chance of type I error. More likely when data has confidence of 99% in research hypothesis and 1% in null hypothesis
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Sections in a scientific report
Title, Abstract (brief summary incl APFC, usually 150-250 words), Introduction (reviews relevant literature, provides background, states questions and hypothesis and purpose), Method, Results (AVOIDS INTERPRETATION), Discussion, References
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What is included in the method?
Design - research design (experimental, correlational)
Sample - details about participants/subjects including demographics and inclusions/exclusions
Apparatus - equipment used
Procedure - steps taken including manipulations, measurements, tasks.
Ethics - discusses ethical considerations
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How to reference journal (format)
Authors, date, article title, journal name (in italics, shown by underlining when writing), volume (and issue in brackets), page numbers
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How to reference book (format)
Authors, date, title of book (in italics, shown by underlining when writing), place of publication, publisher
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How to reference website (format)
Source, date, title, weblink, date accessed
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When should you use Spearman's rho?
When the relationship is correlational, has repeated measures design, data is ordinal or can be converted to ordinal and non-parametric
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Spearman's rho and Pearson's r calculated value
Called the r value. Between +1.00 and -1.00
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When should you use Pearson's r?
Correlational relationship between 2 variables, data is interval or ratio (parametric), data normally distributed
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When should you use Wilcoxon signed ranks test?
There is a difference between two variables (experiment), has repeated measures design and data is ordinal (non-parametric)
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Wilcoxon signed ranks test name of calculated value
T value
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When should you use the t-tests?
For both: looks for difference in scores (experimental), has interval or ratio data (parametric test)
Difference: related t-test used on studies with repeated measures design, unrelated t-test on independent groups
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T-tests name of calculated value
t-value
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When should you use the Mann-Whitney U test?
Looks for difference between 2 variables (experimental), has independent groups design, data is ordinal (non-parametric)
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Mann-Whitney U test name of calculated value
U value
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When should you use the Chi-Squared Test?
Looks for difference/association between 2 variables (can be experiment or observation), has independent groups design, data is nominal (non-parametric)
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Chi-Squared test name of calculated value
χ² value
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What makes psychology scientific?
Objectivity, empirical method, replicability, falsifiability (idea must be able to be proven wrong by evidence), theory construction (general explanation backed by lots of evidence), hypothesis testing, paradigms (shared beliefs and methods used by scientists) and paradigm shifts (new way of thinking after new discoveries/changes in society)
