Paper 2: 5. Approaches Flashcards
(36 cards)
What are the main assumptions of the behavioural theory?
- The behaviourist’s main approach is that behaviour that can be observed and measured.
- Behaviourists try to maintain high levels of control and objectivity within their research and rely on lab experiments as the best way to achieve this..This means that in behaviourist research, animals could replace humans as experimental subjects.
- Behaviourists identified two important forms of learning:
1. classical conditioning and
2. operant conditioning
What was Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning? (hint; dog, bell)
Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food. Gradually, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus) with food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound.
Thus Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus, in this case a bell, can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.
What was Skinner’s research into operant conditioning? (use the examples of 1.praise 2. completing essay 3.not completing essay & shouting)
Skinner (1953) suggested that in operant conditioning there are three types of consequence of behaviour:
- Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
(eg praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class) - Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant.
When a students hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance of an electric shock. - Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for not completing the essay (Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement - so doing the essay to avoid the punishment of being shouted at.)
Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
Evaluate behaviourist approach 2✅3❌
✅Scientific credibility - By emphasising the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status.
✅Real life application - The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behavioural problems. For instance, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges.
❌Mechanistic view of behaviour - From a behaviourist perspective, animals (including humans) are seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment, with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour. Other approaches in psychology, emphasise the important of mental processes during learning and people may play a much more active role in their own learning. This means that the learning theory may apply more to animal behaviour, but not to humans.
❌Environmental determinism - Skinner suggested that everything we do is based on what behaviours have been reinforced throughout our lives. This ignores the possibility that we have free will and that this might influence our behaviour, not just our past experiences. Skinner states that free will is an illusion and that when something happens, we think we have made the decision but it is our past history that has determined the outcome of what we do in different situations.
❌Ethical & practical issues in animal experiments - The animals involved in experiments were exposed to stressful conditions, which may also have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation. Many critics have questioned the ethics of conducting such investigations.
Discuss SARDINE with the behaviourist approach.
✅Scientific? - YES, very scientific. Application - Reductionism - Determinism - YES, very enviromnentally deterministic as it believes that all behaviour is based off past behaviours which have been donitioned onto us. Ididographic - Nature v Nurture- NATURE, Extrapolisation -
What are the main assumptions of the Social Learning Theory?
Bandura agreed with the behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learned from experience.
HOWEVER, his social learning theory claimed that people learn through observation and imitation within a social context. SLT suggested that learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly.
What is vicarious reinforcement in the SLT?
For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. Learners may imitate this behaviour but imitation only occurs if the behaviour is rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished, i.e. vicarious reinforcement. So, learning involves observing a behaviour as well as observing the consequences of a behaviour.
List and explain the four mediational processes.
Attention – the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention – how well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction – the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation – the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
The first two of these relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of behaviour. Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
SLT focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning. These mental factors mediate the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
What is identificatin in SLT
People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify, called role models. This process is called modelling. A person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status. Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environments (they may be on tv).
Evaluation for Social Learning Theory 3✅2❌
✅Social learning theory has useful applications - The principles of social learning have been applied to increase our understanding of criminal behaviour. Akers suggests that the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are 1) exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour, 2) identify with these models and 3) have an expectation that there will be positive consequences for their own
✅Explains cultural differences -in behaviour - SLT has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other individuals around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.\
✅Identification in social learning of health behaviours - Media attempts to change health-related behaviours have shown that if as model is similar to the people watching, they are more likely to bring about identification and greater social learning. Sager et al (2006) found that those who perceived similarity to a model in an anti-alcohol advertisement positively related to the message’s effectiveness.
❌A problem of causality - The cause of delinquency may not be social learning as a results of exposure to deviant role models, but because individuals have deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers. Researchers suggest that young people who possess deviant attitudes and values (e.g. low self control) would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours, as they are more fun to be with.
❌A problem of causaility - In real life, a child is exposed to many different influences on behaviour, not just role models (ie media portrayals) This is a problem for social learning researchers, if virtually anything can have an influence on a specific behaviour, it becomes very difficult to show that social learning is the main causal influence
SADRING FOR SLT
S A R D I N E
What is the main assumtion of the psychodynamic approach?
Sigmund Freud formed the psychodynamic approach.
He developed a form of therapy known as psychoanalysis.
hodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages.
What i the role of the unconsciousness
Freud believed that most of our behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind.
Thus the unconscious mind has a greater influence (on our behavior) than our conscious.
Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see.
what is the role of instincts and drives
2) Instincts and drives
Instincts/Drives. This approach argues that it is instincts or drives that motivate our behaviour. These drives are in the unconscious mind.
• Traumatic memories are also believed to remain there, not accessible to us but still able to affect our behaviour.
• Freud believed that the mind actively prevents traumatic memories from reaching conscious awareness.
• These memories might cause anxiety; therefore, the mind uses defence mechanisms to prevent the person becoming aware of them.
what effect does early childhood experiences have sychodynamic reharse this q
3) Early Childhood Experience. Early childhood is believed to be essential in making us the person we are. According to Freud most of our psychological development is thought to be formed prior to the age of six.
lengthy question
personality and psycho
The structure of personality
Our early experiences are believed to be vital in shaping our personality.
Freud suggested that there are thee parts to our personality:
Id
This forms from birth to about 18 months old.
It is also sometimes referred to as the ‘pleasure principle’.
The id is the childlike, selfish and pleasure-seeking part of your personality.
Ego
The ego develops between the ages of 18 months and 3 years
It is referred to as the ‘reality principle’.
The Ego acts as a referee between the id and the superego. The ego tries to balance between the demands of the id and superego.
The ego uses defence mechanisms e.g. denial to cope with the conflict between the id and the superego.
If the ego fails, the id or superego could become dominant in a personality, which could adversely affect the behaviour and mental health of the individual.
E.g. if the id leads a person could be…
Superego
Develops between the ages of three and six years.
It is known as the ‘morality principle’.
The role of the superego is to act as an individual’s conscience.
This approach suggests that much of our behaviour comes from the conflict between the three.
Psychodynamic and defence mechanism
Defence Mechanisms
Defence mechanisms are methods we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety (due to the conflict between the id and the superego).
If an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally, their defence mechanisms may be triggered.
By using defence mechanisms, the individual stops themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant thoughts and feelings associated with the traumatic situation.
the psychosexual stages - oral
The psychosexual stages looks at the development of the id over childhood.
Oral Stage
At birth a child enters the oral stage as the focus for pleasure and gratification is the mouth.
A child will get pleasure from biting and sucking which are oral activities.
During this phase the infant gets gratification from sucking and swallowing, like breast feeding, which eventually changes to biting and chewing.
Freud believed this stage was important in formation of the personality.
If a child is weaned from its mother’s milk too early or too late it is thought the child will become fixated at the oral stage.
A person who is fixated on the oral stage is thought to be more likely to chew on pens, bite their fingernails and smoke.
ANAL STAGE SYCHO
Anal Stage
Occurs at 18 months old
Pleasure is gained from defecating.
If the child loves using the potty and is overtly keen to do so, then the child is thought to be in the anally expulsive stage.
As an adult such individuals tend to grow up to be a generous person who is open with their emotions.
If the parents are very strict about potty training, the child will become anxious about using the potty and try to hold on to the faeces rather than use the potty.
This stage is called anally retentive. An adult with an unconscious fixation at this stage will display personality characteristics like being very organised, very neat and reluctant to spend their money.
PHALLIC STAGE
Phallic Stage
Age 3.
The focus for pleasure moves to the genitals.
Boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls go through the Electra complex.
Oedipus complex
• Freud argued that a boy experiences intense sexual feelings for their mother. His father is then seen to be a rival and he therefore wants him to leave so that the mother can focus on him.
• As the father is a lot bigger than the boy, the child feels scared of the father. Freud said that the boy is worried that his father will castrate him (‘castration anxiety’.)
• In order to combat the anxiety, the boy befriends his father to reduce the anxiety. He does this by acting similarly to the father. This is called identification.
Oedipus complex
This reduces the castration anxiety felt by the boy and his Oedipus conflict is resolved.
Electra complex
For girls at this stage, the realisation that they do not have a penis is very important.
They think that the mother has removed it and so, around the age of three, they develop penis envy of males.
When girls realise that they cannot have a penis, they desire a baby instead.
The little girl desires the father in a similar was(WAY) to boys with their mothers, and so she goes through the identification process in the same way.
Fixations at the phallic stage can lead to a jealous and anxious adult.
list rhe stages of psycho
Oral (0-2 Anal (2-3 Phallic (Oediopus / eLCTRYA) (3-6 latent (6-12 gental(12+
Latent Stage
Age 6, repressed sexual urges.
No impact on personality
genital stage
12 years +
Sexual energy focuses on genitals here.
Eventually leading to sexual intercourse.
eval for psychos
Scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach
• In 1994, Williams studied 129 adults who had been treated for sexual abuse as a child aged 10 months to 12 years in a large city hospital.
17 years later these individuals were interviewed.
38% said they did not recall the incident that brought them to the hospital. This study is often cited as proof that sexual abuse memories are often repressed.
Psychoanalysis: a pioneering approach
The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a huge shift in psychological thinking.
It suggested new procedures for gathering empirical evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection.
From these observations, Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather that (CHANGE TO THAN) biological, treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety.
evidence against the psychodyamic approach People who have been known to have suffered terrible abuse during childhood have been studied. These include adults who were in Nazi concentration camps, children who watched while their parents were killed, children who were kidnapped, etc.
None have been found to have repressed their memories of the childhood events (e.g suffered PTSD)
Their problem tends to be the opposite, they want to forget the incidents, but are unable to.
This goes against Freud’s theory and idea of repression.
Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach
Sue and sue (2008) argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures.
Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to get better.
However, many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way that Western cultures do. In China, for example, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being encouraged to discuss them openly.
This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy.
Freud used a bias sample - freud studied a group of middle class viannese women ages between 20-44 who had serious emotional problems, and so sample canot reliably generalise to the general population. he also only studied one child (little hans) when developing his thery of psychosexual develoment and even then he only corresponded with the boy’s father by letter.
Lack of testability falsifiability of defense mechanisms
As defense mechanisms are unconscious processes they cannot be studied directly/tested and can only be conclusions can only be made from the behaviours seen or from reported thoughts or experiences.
This also means Freud’s theory is not scientific, reducing the overall validity of Freuds theory.
We cannot test the id/ego/superego as they are unconscious parts of our minds.
Lack of testability falsifiability of defense mechanisms
As defense mechanisms are unconscious processes they cannot be studied directly/tested and can only be conclusions can only be made from the behaviours seen or from reported thoughts or experiences.
This also means Freud’s theory is not scientific, reducing the overall validity of Freuds theory.
We cannot test the id/ego/superego as they are unconscious parts of our minds.
