Paper 2 - Approaches Flashcards
(40 cards)
What were Wundt’s aims in psychology?
He was the first psychologist and based in Germany
- Believed the human mind could be studied scientifically in experimental conditions
- He aimed to study the STRUCTURE of the human brain through introspection
- Introspection: process by which a person gains insight into their own mental/emotional states (providing descriptions of their inner processes when observing controlled stimuli) - possible with sufficient training
What is Empiricism?
Empiricist’s believe that knowledge about behaviour comes from observation and experience (not innate) - this developed its emergence as a science
- assumed all behaviour has a cause
- if all behaviour has a cause, it can be predicted
What is the scientific method?
- use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
- control of variables, measuring and recording data accurately
- ensuring reliability in the scientific processes
- building and refining observation, developing scientific theories the testing further
2 limitations of Wundt’s structuralist approach
- unreliable methods: relied on ‘non-observable’ responses and therefore cannot be reproduced by other researchers - contrasts the research by Thorndike and Pavlov
- Introspection is inaccurate: Nisbett and Wilson suggested there may be hidden stereotypes which influence behaviour/reactions which would not be uncovered in self-reports (as they are outside conscious awareness - implicit attitude)
Strengths and weaknesses of the scientific method
STRENGTHS: objective, systematic, ability to establish causes, allows refinement of scientific theories (self-corrective) due to constant replication
WEAKNESSES: too much control; therefore left with artificial conditions that are inapplicable to natural situations. Psychology is unobservable; inaccurate due to inferential nature.
What is the main assumption of the behaviourist approach?
Assumes that all behaviour is learnt through experiences (and associations) in our environment
What is classical conditioning? (behaviourist)
Classical conditioning: based on the idea that all animals have natural responses to a stimuli. Pavlov suggested that as an unconditioned stimulus (food) triggers an unconditioned response (salivation), overtime you may associate the UCR with a NS (like a bell). This would eventually lead to the NS becoming conditioned (CS) as it would produce the CR of salivation.
This process requires short time intervals, consistency (prevents extinction), may be paired quickly after extinction (spontaneous recovery) and once established, may be applied to similar stimuli (stimulus generalisation)
What is operant conditioning? (behaviourist)
Operant conditioning: Basic ideas suggested by Skinner - rewards and punishments.
Studied through mice in a box; mice freely moved in a box but when they pressed a lever, food fell into the cage - they then continue to press to receive food - if food discontinues, after a couple attempts, the association becomes extinct
Reinforcement: action that makes something more likely to occur
Positive reinforcement: pleasant consequences for behaviour (food, praise)
Negative reinforcement: remove something unpleasant to restore organism to pre-aversive state (phobias)
Punishment: behaviour is discontinued when it receives a undesirable consequence
Schedules of reinforcement: reinforcing after time intervals is most effective and prevents extinction
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach
STRENGTHS:
- Positive applications: explanations for classical conditioning can be applied to treat phobias - systematic desensitization works by eliminating anxious responses and replacing with calmer ones (by counter-conditioning) - proved to be effective; shows it is possible to form associations
- Reliance on the experimental method: controlled and therefore possible to discover causal relationships through accurate measurements - valid results
WEAKNESSES
- Ignores the role of biology: Seligman proposed that the concept of preparedness explains why species have the capability to learn associations to survive yet incapable to produce associations with insignificant things (wooden blocks)
- Animal studies: tell us little about human behaviour and can only describe animals - human beings have free will although Skinner said this ‘free will’ was an illusion and everything was produced by external guidance
What is the main assumption of the social learning theory?
Bandura suggested that behaviour could be acquired directly or indirectly (through the behaviour of others)
Develop hypotheses of the behaviours consequence (based on seeing it) - alters likelihood of them repeating it
Describe the process of acquiring behaviour indirectly (SLT)
Model: requires a live (real) or symbolic (media) model to provide examples of a behaviour
Imitation: Child imitates attitudes and behaviours from model - whole patterns of behaviour are rapidly acquired (unlike conditioning). Key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated: observers perceived ability, characteristics of model, consequences
Identification: the individual must relate to the model and feel that they are similar enough to experience the same outcomes (Shutts suggested children are more likely to identify with same-sex models)
Vicarious reinforcement: Bandura and Waters et al - noted children who observed a model awarded through aggressive behaviour, would be more likely to imitate whereas if they saw them being punished. This idea suggests that individuals do not need to directly experience the consequences for them to make judgements and adjust their behaviour
What are the roles of mediational processes? (SLT)
Internal processes must occur for the social learning theory to take place - observer must form mental representations of displayed behaviour and then require the opportunity. (Attention, Retention, Motivation)
Describe Bandura’s study as a strength of the SLT
Bandura used children aged between 3-6 who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adults interacting with a Bobo doll ( and a control group).
Children who observed the aggressive adults (physical aggression displayed), would act similarly when it was rewarded.
This shows that the children were imitating the adults
However no empathy for bobo doll
Evaluate the SLT
STRENGTHS:
- Useful applications: increase understanding of criminal behaviour, Akers suggests that criminal behaviour is more likely to occur when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour - therefore can be used in rehab by providing them with more suitable role models - effective so suggests it had a behavioural cause.
- Support for identification: Fox and Bailenson used virtual humans engaging in exercising or loitering. The models looked similar to individual ppts. Ppts who viewed their similar virtual humans exercising, engaged in more exercise in 24 hours following the experiment - similar characteristics promotes identification as it is easier to visualise the self in place of the model
WEAKNESSES:
- Lacks causality: Siegel et al suggested that deviant behaviour relates to the increased associations with deviant peers as they adopt similar values etc. However, critics argue it may not be due to the exposure to the deviant model but the deviant attitudes present before - leads to them to seek out other similar peers - explanation lacks validity
- Complexity: ignorance to other potential causes - e.g gender, biology
What are the main assumption of the cognitive approach?
Assumes that all human behaviour is determined by how we perceive, store and interpret information.
Believe it is necessary to look at our internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour
- scientific studies
- computer models
- active processing
What is inference? (cog)
Making assumptions/ drawing conclusions from evidence
Describe the study of internal mental processes (cog)
Relates the brain to a computer which we extract, store, retrieve and interpret information - helps guide our behaviour
- using experimental methods to study attention, memory and decision making
- May compare progress of two groups to infer things about memory processes
What are schemas? (cog)
Refer to the cognitive framework which helps us organise and interpret information.
Schemas for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in different situations or in different roles.
Allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information (fill in the gaps), however, they may exclude information that does not conform to our established ideas - stereotypes (difficult to disconfirm our schemas)
What are theoretical models ?
Multistore model etc are simplified representations of current research evidence - often pictorial but often incomplete and updated
Computer models: sensory info may be coded as it passes through the system (input, encoding, then combined with previous info to do a task).
Stored similarly - RAM (WMM) and hard disk (LTM)
Describe the emergence of cog neuroscience
Non-invasive neuroimaging techniques provide info and understanding about brain structures - different emotions and activities trigger different parts of the brain
Evaluate the cognitive approach
STRENGTHS:
- Positive app: in treating dysfunctional behaviour (caused by faulty thinking) - CBT has been effective (it corrects thinking), therefore showing the problem is rooted in thought processes
- Scientific: experimental method provides researchers with a method of collecting and evaluating evidence to reach accurate conclusions - high internal but may lack ecological
WEAKNESSES:
- Computer models: important differences between computer coding and information processing in humans - computers don’t make mistakes/ forget, unlike humans therefore it cannot be applied fully to humans
- Ignores emotion and motivation: fails to tell us WHY different cognitive processes take place - cog approach depends too much on computer models which don’t have motivation or emotions, key characteristics in the behaviour of humans ; overdependence on the analogies
What are the main assumptions of the biological approach?
Assumes that everything psychological begins biological and can be traced back to genes.
Describe the effect of genes on behaviour(bio)
Genotype: the genetic code in DNA
Phenotype: physical appearance of inherited info
Genes are passed down to offspring and will carry certain characteristics but the presentation of the characteristic depends on the genes interaction with the environment
Heredity: passing of characteristics
Heritability: the amount of variability in a trait
What biological structures influence behaviour? (bio)
Nerves/nervous system: CNS and PNS carrying messages and electrical signals
Brain: different parts cause different things
