PAPER 2- TOPIC 1 APPROACHES ✅

Question 1

not in advanced info

Brief summary of Wundt’s role in the development of psychology

Answer 1

• Wundt opened first lab for psychology
• He created the first system where he could be the first to analyse the human conscious experience under controlled conditions (through introspection)
• He conducted a standardised experiment where he gave P’s stimuli of different objects and sounds and recorded their mental processes and experience
• their observation split into 3 categories: thoughts, images and sensations

Question 2

not in advanced info

Define introspection

Answer 2

examination of ones own mental states or processes, through looking inward
-broken up in basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 3

not in advanced info

Define structuralism

Answer 3

isolating consciousness into structures such as thoughts processes and images

Question 4

not in advanced info

Explain the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 4

-Wundt’s first lab and coined introspection

BEHAVIOURIST

• Watson and Skinner thought introspection wasn’t scientific enough as not visible, and was subjective
• Stated scientific psychology must be observed and measured objectively
• They brought better controlled methods (experimental methods) that could be observed and measured objectively

COGNITIVE

• Science advanced were made along with the digital revolution, as the cognitive approach likened the mind to computers (e.g multi-store model)
• tested predictions using experiments

BIOLOGICAL

• advances in tech, allowed advanced investigation into physiological processes
• new scanning techniques (e.g fMRI and EEG) allow study of brain activity
• new testing methods (e.g. genetic testing) lead to understanding between genes and behaviour

Question 5

not in advanced info

1 strength 1 weakness of Wundt’s research

Answer 5

STRENGTH
•systematic methods
-controlled conditions in lab (control ER)
-standardised procedures (all P’s tested in same way)

WEAKNESS
• unscientific in modern world
-subjective experience
-prone to bias (may have hidden some thoughts)
-hard to establish general laws and cause and effect

Question 6

not in advanced info

1 strength 1 weakness of modern psychology

Answer 6

STRENGTH
•claim to be scientific
-same aims as natural sciences to understand, control and predict behaviour
-controlled methods used by cognitive, learning and biological approach

WEAKNESS
•not all approaches use objective methods
-humanist focus on subjective experience
-psychodynamic use case studies which don’t have representative samples
-Possible demand characteristics shown by P’s

•no paradigm among all approaches

Question 7

Assumptions of Social learning theory

Answer 7

• all behaviour is learnt through observational learning and modelling of role models actions
• babies start with a tabula rasa, only learn through experience
• learning occurs directly (through classical and operant conditioning) and indirectly (vicarious reinforcement)
• role models are identified to, based on shared characteristics

Question 8

Define vicarious reinforcement

Answer 8

indirectly experiencing reinforcement by observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

imitation will usually only occur when behaviour is rewarded

Question 9

What are the mediational factors

Answer 9

cognitive factors that intervene in the learning process, to decide whether a newly observed response is acquired

Attention- extent we notice behaviours

Retention- how well behaviour is remembered

Motor reproduction- ability to perform observed behaviour

Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour (based on if it was rewarded or punished)

—-> behaviours can be learnt, stored and reproduced at a different time

Question 10

Define identification

Answer 10

an observer’s desire to be associated with a role model as they possess similar or desirable characteristics

—-> people are more likely to imitate the behaviour people they identify with

Question 11

what is the term used to describe “imitating a role model”

Answer 11

modelling
- imitating the behaviour of a role model

BUT, modelling can also mean
- the behaviour of a role model, demonstrating a specific behaviour

Question 12

Banduras bobo doll study

Aim, Method and findings

Answer 12

Aim: studying social modelling of aggression

Method: -observed and recorded the behaviour a group of young children who watched an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll (hitting with hammer, shouting abuse)

• other group of children watched adults behave normally
• these children were later observed playing with toys including the bobo doll

Findings: found that the children showed much more aggression toward the doll and toys than those who had observed a non aggressive adult

Question 13

what does Bandura’s Bobo Doll study show

Answer 13

that children are able to learn through the observation and imitation of adult behaviour

Question 14

Follow up Bandura study and results

Answer 14

One group saw video of aggressive adult get praised for behaviour
One group saw video of aggressive adult get punished for behaviour
One group saw video of aggressive adult receive no consequence (control group)

• The group of children who saw the adult get praised were more likely to be more aggressive
• then the control group
• then the children who saw the adult get punished (least likely to be aggressive)

Question 15

what does Bandura’s follow up study suggest

Answer 15

behaviour is only imitated if they observe the behaviour be reward rather than punished

Question 16

Strengths of SLT

Answer 16

•recognises cognitive factors in learning

• through the meditational processes, humans store info about behaviour of others and use this to make judgments of their own behaviour
• not accounted for in conditioning
• so provides more comprehensive explanation of human learning

•applied to range of real world behaviours

• used by teachers to help increase or reinforce all children in. class by punishing or pos reinforcing one child (vicarious reinforcement)
• can explain cultural differences in behaviour
• imitation, modelling and reinforcement can explain how children learn from others, including the media’s impact on children’s idea of social and cultural norms
• increases value of approach as accounts for real world behaviour

Question 17

Weakness of SLT

Answer 17

• little recognition of biological factors

• little reference to influence of biological factors
• Bandura claimed all learning was determined by environment
• however new research shows that observational learning is the result of mirror neurones in brain which allow us to emphasise and imitate with other people

•ideas come from Banduras experiment which is only on children

• children brain less developed than adults so study may not work on adults
• also kids may be more impressionable than adults
• won’t apply to adults and so can’t be a valid explanation of human behaviour

Question 18

Assumptions of behaviourist approach

Answer 18

• research should be scientific, observable and measurable (lab studies)
• —> reject introspection
• all behaviour is learned through stimulus response
• basic learning processes (classical and operant conditioning) are the same in all species. So humans are replaced by animals in experiments
• baby is born with tabula rasa

Question 19

Classical conditioning

Answer 19

•learning by association (involuntary)

• Pavlov
• showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if it was repeatedly presented at same time as food
• bell initially
• gradually learned to associate them together and salivated (new conditioned response) to the bell (neutral stimulus)

Question 20

define Operant conditioning

Answer 20

learning where behaviour is shaped by its consequences (voluntary)
—> when we operate on our environment

•Skinner
- every time the rat activated a lever it was rewarded with food. The animal kept repeating the behaviour to get more rewards

Question 21

Define positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment

Answer 21

Positive reinforcement- receiving reward or desirable consequence when a behaviour is performed (e.g praise)
—> increase frequency of behaviour

Negative reinforcement- when you avoid a negative consequence due to behaviour

(e. g hand in homework on time)
- —> increase frequency of behaviour

Punishment- unpleasant consequence of behaviour
—> decrease frequency of behaviour

Question 22

Describe Skinners research

Answer 22

• Aim to see if reward increased likelihood of behaviour
• rat or pombo pressed lever and food was released
• rat kept pressing lever to release more food
• when the consequence of the lever changed, it affected whether behaviour is repeated (punishment = stopped pressing lever)

Question 23

further skinner research on negative reinforcement and punishment

Answer 23

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - when floor was electrified, if they pressed the lever, the floor stopped the electric shock.
- found increase behaviour to prevent unpleasant consequence

PUNISHMENT - if press lever, rat was electric shocked
- reduced behaviour of pressing the lever, due to punishment

Question 24

Strengths of behaviourist approach

Answer 24

•based on well controlled research
- focus on measurable observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings (remove all extraneous variables- valid)

•good application to real world behaviours

• used by teachers and parents to encourage desired behaviours and stop unwanted ones
• used in token economy aswell

Question 25

Weaknesses of behaviourist approach

Answer 25

Ethical problems • animals used in harsh cramped conditions and deliberately kept below weight so they were always hungry •disregards mental processes - (mediational processes, cognitive, social learning theory ) •sees all behaviour as based on past conditioning experiences -ignores free will and conscious decision making processes

Question 26

# not in advanced info Assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 26

* internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically * these processes of the mind are perception, attention and memory * are private and can’t be observed so inferences are made about what’s going on inside people’s minds based on their behaviour

Question 27

# not in advanced info Define schema

Answer 27

•mental framework of knowledge, beliefs and expectations that developed from experience, and influences cognitive processing (that helps us make sense of stimuli and information and organise it in the brain)

Question 28

# not in advanced info Why is schema useful

Answer 28

Help us: - make shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information - to draw on aspects of it when in new situations

Question 29

# not in advanced info Brief summary of the emergence of cognitive neuroscience include uses of new mapping techniques

Answer 29

DEFINITION: scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processing - follows on from Broca finding damage to an area in frontal lobe impairs speech production - advances led to systematic brain mapping techniques (PET, fMRI, EEG) - -> useful in establishing role of some brain structures on mental disorders (e.g cingulate gyri on OCD) - -> useful in establishing WMM, as Peterson found semantic and episodic memory on opposite sides of pre-frontal cortex) - recent development has led to computer generated models being used to map out and "read" the brain from these scans

Question 30

# not in advanced info What are the new scanning techniques used in cognitive neuroscience and why are they good? Describe an experiment using it

Answer 30

fMRI, EEG, PET - allow for more scientific and accurate observations of internal mental processes. Can evaluate and falsify inferences objectively * Fink used PET scans to see which areas of the brain are most active when looking at individual details or the holistic view of a picture * Fink found that when people focus on details the left hemisphere was the brain is more active and when focusing on whole pic, the right side is more active

Question 31

# not in advanced info What is the role of theoretical and computer models And a brief summary of them

Answer 31

Used to try and explain human mental processes Computer- concrete model - used computer analogies to explain human processes - program computers and see whether the output of humans and computers is similar, when given same instructions - use terms like input, output and coding Theoretical- abstract - use diagrams to represent the steps involved in internal mental processes (e. g. information processing model)

Question 32

# not in advanced info assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 32

- genetics, evolution, hormonal and neural responses, and biological structures explain behaviour the best - al thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis - behaviour is innate & varies due to genetics - mental illness explained by physical aspects of the body (same as physical illness)

Question 33

# not in advanced info what does the biological approach suggest explains behaviour

Answer 33

- genetics - biochemistry (neurochemistry in particular) - evolution - biological structure

Question 34

# define genotype define phenotype

Answer 34

genotype- person's genetic makeup phenotype- genes expresses through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics due to a combined effect of genes and environment

Question 35

# not in advanced info define concordance rates

Answer 35

level of similarity between two individuals

Question 36

# not in advanced info brief summary of Gottezman study

Answer 36

Gottezman found concordance rates for schizophrenia - 48% to monozygotic twins - higher % than in dizygotic twins - 1% to general population - showed that genetics is only partial cause as not 100%

Question 37

# define biochemistry and neurochemistry

Answer 37

- concerned with how chemicals in our body work (hormones, neurotransmitters) - action of chemicals on the brain that affect thinking and behaviour

Question 38

# not in advanced info role of neurotransmitters what does the imbalance of the 2 types lead to

Answer 38

- chemical that relay impulses from one cell to another across a synapse dopamine- high levels leads to schizophrenia serotonin- low levels leads to OCD

Question 39

# not in advanced info three biological structures that dictate behaviour

Answer 39

* brain structure- certain areas of the brain control different behaviours (e.g. brocas- speech production, wernickes- speech comprehension) * nervous system- collects and processes information from environment and responds to it * endocrine system- network of glands that regulate the hormone levels and functions of the body

Question 40

# not in advanced info define evolution

Answer 40

evolution is the gradual changes in genetic characteristics of a species over generations

Question 41

# not in advanced info describe natural selection

Answer 41

- Darwin's proposed theory of evolution - desirable behaviours that led to enhanced survival chances would make these animals more likely to survive (survival of the fittest) and therefore reproduce - leading to them passing on their desirable genes to their offspring - this changes the genetic combinations in the new population (evolution)

Question 42

# not in advanced info strengths of biological approach

Answer 42

+practical applications - increased understanding of neurochemical processes - drugs used to treat disorders - less need for hospital +uses scientific methods of investigation - fMRI, EEG - not bias, precise, valid

Question 43

# not in advanced info weaknesses of biological approach

Answer 43

+deterministic and takes blame away from individual -sees behaviour as a result of internal causes we have no control +concordance rate for schzio in Gottezman study was 50% -not entirely genetic

Question 44

assumptions of humanistic approach

Answer 44

- self determining our destiny and have free will - people are still affected by external influences, but are active agents in determining their own development - reject scientific general principles (nomothetic), focus on subjective study (person-centred approach) - believe personal growth as essential in all humans so they can develop to become fulfilled and satisfied

Question 45

describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 45

• a hierarchical, 5 level sequence of what motivates behaviour - which shows that deficiency needs must be met in order to reach the innate growth need: self actualisation - person can only progress through hierarchy if they meet the current level need - suggests basic survival needs must all be met before higher psychological needs can be met (e.g. self actualisation)

Question 46

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 46

Self actualisation Esteem Love/belonging Safety and Security Physiological

Question 47

flashcard to remember order of maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 47

``` S E L S P ``` SELL SIMON PETRI ``` Self actualisation Esteem Love/Belonging Safety Physiological ```

Question 48

examples of each of maslow's needs and define self actualisation

Answer 48

Self actualisation- self-defined and innate need to grow and achieve full personal potential Esteem- confidence, sense of achievement, respect from others Love/belonging- family, sexual intimacy safety- health, a home, job security physiological- water, sex, food

Question 49

what does Rogers suggest personal growth is

Answer 49

developing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated

Question 50

define self concept and ideal self

Answer 50

self concept- the way a person sees themselves ideal self- the person were want to be

Question 51

who stated importance of self concept in physiological health -explain his idea

Answer 51

carl rogers self concept needs to be realistic and aligned with our ideal self in order for personal growth - closer they are the better our psychological well-being created client centred therapy to help ppl with a lack of this in their childhood)

Question 52

# define congruence define incongruence

Answer 52

* how closely matched the self concept is to the ideal self - when people are most motivated * when self actualisation is not possible due to the negative feelings from a large difference between ideal self and self concept is

Question 53

what are the two important needs, suggested by Rogers, that allow for good personal growth

Answer 53

• unconditional regard (love) - increases feelings of self worth - if conditions are put on love in childhood, the child will have psychological issues in the future - -----(e.g. "I will love you if...") • self concept and worth - viewing ourselves in congruence to our ideal self - developed during childhood through interactions with family, and later on friends and peers.

Question 54

therapy used to help improve congruence and positive self concepts its aim how is it done

Answer 54

•Rogers client-centred therapy ----> aim is to reduce gap between idea self and self concept - done by addressing individuals individually, who experienced a lack of unconditional positive regard - he suggested that metal health problems stem from childhood - so aims to give client a unique form of positive regard to counter this (the therapy is non-directive meaning the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions)

Question 55

strengths of humanistic approach

Answer 55

optimstic -promote positive self image, everyone free to work to individual potential rejects reductionism of behaviour -holism (consider whole person)

Question 56

weaknesses of humanistic approach

Answer 56

culturally bias -central ideas like individual freedom may apply to western individualist cultures, but not eastern collectivist cultures limited application to real world - only contributed to Rogerian counselling which is rarely used

Question 57

assumptions of psychodynamic approach

Answer 57

* describes the different, the mostly unconscious, dynamics drives and instincts that direct human behaviour and experience * emphasise role of unconscious on behaviour - ---> where our biological drives (dynamics) and instincts, that influence behaviour, are stored - ---> contains repressed, disturbing memories, that can be accessed during dreams or 'slips of the tongue' (parapraxes) *  believe childhood experience shapes personality, through fixations in PS stages *  suggests importance of pre-conscious too (next card)

Question 58

What does preconscious mean

Answer 58

thoughts and memories, just out of the conscious mind, that could be accessed if desired

Question 59

Freud's tripartite view of personality

Answer 59

ID- operates on pleasure principle - primitive part of personality with all unconscious drives and instincts - selfish, wants immediate gratification of its needs - innate - fully unconscious EGO- operates on reality principle mediates and reduces conflict between demands of id and superego ----> through using defence mechanisms - develops at age 2 - some aspects are conscious some unconscious SUPER-EGO- operates on morality principle - individuals internalised sense of right and wrong - punishes ego with guilt for wrongdoing - develops at age 5, during phallic stage - represents the morals of the child's same-gender parent - some aspects are conscious some unconscious

Question 60

# Define defence mechanisms Examples

Answer 60

unconscious, short term strategies that the Ego uses help manage and balance the conflicts of id and superego, to prevent us from being overwhelmed from temporary threats and trauma Examples: •repression- unconscious blocking of disturbing thoughts from entering conscious mind (abusive past affects future relationships) - thoughts don't go away and still influence behaviour * denial- refusal to accept some aspect of reality * displacement- direct thoughts on feelings to someone other than who they view as responsible (a substitute target)

Question 61

One pro one con of defence mechanisms

Answer 61

PRO •help us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas CON •often involve distortion of reality, therefore seen as unhealthy and unstable.

Question 62

psychosexual stages

Answer 62

+oral (0-1 yrs)- focus of pleasure on mouth (biting, sucking). desire is mother's breast +anal (1-3 yrs)- focus of pleasure on anus. desire is to withhold and expel faeces +phallic (3-6 yrs)- focus of pleasure is genital area. •2 types -----> oedipus complex- son wants to sleep w/ mum, fears dad will castrate him. so represses true feelings, identifies w/ dad and takes on his morals and gender role -----> electra complex- daughter wants to sleep w/ her dad, hates her mum, over time desire for kids replaces it +latency (6-12yrs)- early conflicts are repressed, no more conflicts to resolve +genital (12+yrs) puberty occurs during this stage, sexual desire comes conscious

Question 63

result of unresolved conflict at each stage in the psychosexual stages

Answer 63

•any psychosexual stage unresolved leads to fixations where child brings these conflicts and behaviours at this stage to adult life +oral- smoking, nail biting (oral fixation) +anal- anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or expulsive (messy, thoughtless) +phallic- narcissistic, possibly homosexual +latency- none +genital- difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 64

way to remember the order of the psychosexual stages

Answer 64

``` Old Oral Age Anal Pensioners Phallic Like Latency Gin Genital ```

Question 65

strengths of psychodynamic approach

Answer 65

introduced psychotherapy -psychoanalysis (such as dream analysis) attempted to treat mental disorders physiologically rather than physically ability to explain human behaviour -used to explain a wide range of phenomena (personality & moral development, abnormal behaviour and gender identity)

Question 66

weaknesses of psychodynamic approach

Answer 66

untestable -can't be falsified or disproved as subjective occur at unconcious level making them difficult to test based on one single study (Little Hans) dismisses any possibility of free will affecting behaviour -determined by unconscious conflicts formed in childhood

Question 67

# not in advanced info The 5 features you can use to compare between approaches

Answer 67

``` Views on development Nature vs nurture Reductionism Determinism Explaining and treating abnormality ```

Question 68

Define reductionism

Answer 68

Suggests that a behaviour needs to be broken down into small and simplified components in order to explain it effectively

Question 69

Define reductionism

Answer 69

Suggests that the reason for behaviour is the same in everyone and therefore we can predict outcomes of behaviour based on the internal or external cause

Question 70

Role of PNS

Answer 70

Transmit messages to and from the CNS

Question 71

What does the PNS divided

Answer 71

Autonomous nervous system (vital functions- breathing, digestion) Somatic nervous system- (muscle movement and receives sensory responses

Question 72

Division of ANS

Answer 72

(autonomic nervous sytem) Sympathetic- gets body ready for fight or flight by increasing heart and breathing rate Parasympathetic- normal resting state Returns body to normal state after fight or flight

Question 73

When a neuron is resting it has ... When a neuron is activated by a stimulus it has... When a neuron produces action potential ....

Answer 73

Negative charge Positively charged for a second causing action potential to be created Causes an Electrical impulse to travel down the axon towards the End of the neuron

Question 74

# not in advanced info Process of fight or flight response

Answer 74

When a threat is seen, important parts of the brain send a signal to the they hypothalamus Hypothalamus triggers sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system (from parasympathetic) Stimulates adrenal gland Gland releases hormone

Question 75

Physiological changes to the body in the sympathetic state (fight or flight)

Answer 75

increase heart rate, sweating, blood flow to muscles and slowed digestion, contraction of rectum, inhibits saliva production dilates pupils