Paper 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Different types of quantitative research methods
A
- true experiment
- field experiment
- quasi-experiment
- natural experiment
- correlational study
- case study
- survey
2
Q
Key characteristics of a true experiment (experimental method)
A
- examines the effects of an IV on a DV
- the researcher manipulates the IV, so random allocation to the treatment or control condition is possible
- takes place in a controlled environment and extraneous variables are controlled
3
Q
Key characteristics of a field experiment (experimental method)
A
- examines the effect of an IV on a DV
- takes place in a naturalistic setting
- control of extraneous variable is not always possible
4
Q
Key characteristics of a quasi-experiment (experimental method)
A
- examines the effect of an IV on a DV
- one or more conditions of a true experiment can’t be met, e.g. no random allocation is possible
- “in quasi-experiments, participants are grouped based on a characteristic of interest, such as gender, ethnicity, or scores on a depression scale”
5
Q
Key characteristics of a natural experiment (experimental method)
A
- examines the effects of an IV on a DV
- the IV is naturally occurring
- extraneous variables may not always be controlled
(can be confused with a quasi-experiment)
6
Q
Key characteristics of a correlational study (non-experimental method)
A
- does not have an IV and DV, but has co-variables
- tests the strength of relationships of co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient
- values of coefficients range from -1.0 to 1.0
7
Q
Key characteristics of a case study (non-experimental method)
A
- an in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organisation
- multiple methods are used to gather data (which is what makes them “in-depth”)
- they often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods
8
Q
Key characteristics of a survey
A
- gathers data on a large number of participants
- uses data gathering techniques such as questionnaires
- often calculates correlations between co-variables
9
Q
Different types of qualitative research methods
A
- naturalistic observations
- covert and overt observations
- participant and non-participant observations
- qualitative interviews
- semi-structured interviews
- unstructured interviews
- focus group interviews
10
Q
Key characteristics of a naturalistic observation
A
- subjects’ behaviour is observed in a naturalistic environment
- field notes and other data gathering techniques are used
- observations may be followed by interviews
11
Q
Key characteristics of covert and overt observations
A
- covert=subjects are not aware they are being observed
- overt=subjects are aware they are being observed
- usually take place in naturalistic environments in qualitative research
12
Q
Key characteristics of participant and non-participant observations
A
- participant = the research becomes a member of the group they are observing
- non-participant = the researcher stays removed from the group they are observing
13
Q
key characteristics of qualitative interviews
A
- face-to-face discussion involving the researcher asking questions to the participants
- the researcher gathers qualitative data
- there are many different types of qualitative interviews
14
Q
Key characteristics of semi-structured interviews
A
- an interview that follows an interview schedule - it includes an outline of topics tot be covered, but allows for deviation and elaboration
- can include a combination of open and closed questions
- it resembles a conversation
15
Q
Key characteristics of unstructured interviews
A
- the interviewer has topics to cover, but there is a lot of freedom and the precise questions and order are not fixed
- can include open and closed questions
- the interview evolves as a result of the interactions between the research and the interviewee
16
Q
Key characteristics of focus group interviews
A
- a group interview (about 6-10 participants)
- focus group rely on group processes and the interaction of individuals to help reveal information that might not be revealed individual interviews
- the interviewer acts as a moderator and, if done well, the interview will resemble a group discussion
17
Q
Key characteristics of random sampling
A
- when every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
- the aim is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population
- it can reduce the chance of sampling bias
18
Q
Key characteristics of convenience/opportunity sampling
A
- gathers participants who happen to be available for study at a convenient time or place
- it is based on convenience, for both researcher and participant
- depending on the nature of the study, it may lead to sampling and/or researcher bias
19
Q
Key characteristics of volunteer/self-selected sampling
A
- participants are the ones that approach the researchers and volunteer to participate in the study
- there is typically some form of marketing that calls for volunteers
- participants may have more commitment to the study due to the fact that they volunteered
20
Q
Key characteristics of purpose sampling
A
- participants who share characteristics that are relevant and of interest to researchers are asked to participate in the study
- it may use snowballing methods to gather the sample
- they may be recruited through a range of methods, including direct contact or referral from someone else
21
Q
Key characteristics of snowball sampling
A
- a group of initial participants (called “seeds”) invite others to participate in the study
- the sample keeps growing in size until the desired size has been reached
- it is particularly useful when studying “hidden populations (people who do not want others to know about them or who are hard to find)
22
Q
Why would you use triangulation as an additional research method?
A
- the use of an additional method is methodological triangulation. This could increase the credibility (qualitative) or reliability (quantitative) of the study if similar findings are reported
- if using this explanation, consider if there is a reason to think that the study would benefit from triangulation
23
Q
Why would you use experimental research as an additional research method?
A
Effects of an IV on a DV
- an experiment may be conducted if there is a reason why researchers may want to study the effect(s) of one or more variables on a particular behaviour
- perhaps a different type of experiment could be conducted (e.g. a field experiment) to test the effects in a naturalistic setting. Alternatively, a laboratory environment could be proposed to control for extraneous variables. A natural experiment could be used if a naturally-occurring IV could be identified
- an experimental method could test hypotheses generated from a qualitative study
24
Q
Why would you use correlational study as an additional research method?
A
Relationships between co-variables
- this could be a suitable method if there are two co-variables that can be identified in the study and researchers can see how strongly they are connected
- the correlational method could deduce the strength of the relationship. This could lead to further development of hypotheses
25
Why would you use naturalistic observations as an additional research method?
Observing behaviour in a naturalistic environment
- this could be a suitable method if prior studies have been conducted in artificial environments and/or they have gathered behavioural data using questionnaires, interviews or other non-observational methods
26
Why would you use interviews as an additional research method?
Gathering qualitative data on specific experiences
- interviews can make for valuable follow-ups to observations as they allow researchers to gain an understanding of what they have observed
- focus group interviews could be conducted to triangulate research from individual interviews, or vice-versa
27
Definition of informed consent
When participants agree to participate in a study and have been given enough information to make an informed decision
28
Explanation of informed consent
Can reduce stress and discomfort from participants because they know what to expect. It also allows them the chance not to participate, which is relevant if there could be any negative effects from participating in the study - look for a reason in the study why people might not want to participate
29
Definition of anonymity
Removing participants' names from their data during the gathering, analysing, and publication process
30
Explanation of anonymity
Can avoid the invasion of participants' privacy and saves participants from possible embarrassment from participating in the study - look at the results and think of a reason why people might not want their results known
31
Definition of debriefing
This happens at the end of a study and is when the researchers reveal the full nature of the study, including aims and results.
32
Explanation of debriefing
Can reduce the possibility of any long-term negative effects of the study. This is also important when not all information is given in the consent process - see if there was any information that was withheld from participants or if deception was used
33
Definition of the right to withdraw
Before the study begins, participants are assured that they can leave at any time
34
Explanation of the right to withdraw
Allows the participants to avoid harm or stress by assuring them they can end their participation at any time - look for any reason why someone might want to withdraw from the study
35
Definition of approval from an ethics review committee
Before the study can take place, in most countries it needs to be approved by a group of people who make sure it meets the standards of ethical research
36
Explanation of approval from an ethics review committee
This simply makes sure that the study is judged as being ethical by an appropriate committee - look for any way the study might cause harm for participants. This helps explain the need for approval from a review committee
37
Definition of justification for any stress or harm
If harm or stress is expected to occur, this should be reasonable and minimised as much as possible. Ethics final decision about whether a study's methodology is justified
38
Explanation of justification for any stress or harm
Sometimes there is the potential for participants to experience stress or harm during an experiment, but the long-term benefits should outweigh these short-term costs. This is also relevant in animal studies. - look for a way that the study might cause harm. but also why it might be justified
39
Reporting the results in relation to anonymity
Participants' names should be removed from the data when the results are reported. This can save participants from potential embarrassment - explain why participants in the study might want to remain anonymous
40
Reporting the results in relation to debriefing
In qualitative studies, participants may be asked follow-up questions and have additional sessions to make sure the researcher's recording of their data is accurate. This can happen during the debriefing stage and before results are reported - look for any reason why participants may want to learn more about the study before results are reported
41
Applying the results in relation to debriefing and informed consent
If the study is being conducted with a particular application in mind, this may be revealed to participants either during the informed consent phase or during the debriefing phase of the study - if this question is asked, applications of findings will probably be mentioned in the stimulus. Use this information. If it's not, you are free to make hypotheses (or guesses) about how the results could be applied and answer accordingly
42
Reporting the results in relation to informed consent
It may be relevant for researchers to inform participants before the study how the results are intended to be reported
43
Reporting the results in relation to the right to withdraw
In some cases, participants may wish to have their data removed from the study before the results are reported - look for any reason why participants may want to have their data withdrawn from the final report
44
Applying the findings in relation to the right to withdraw
If participants hear about how the study may be applied, they should be given the right to end their participation in the study if they have issues with the proposed applications. This may also be relevant after the study is conducted, whereby participants have the right to withdraw any data.
45
Reporting the results in relation to disclosing conflicts of interest
If researchers have a possible conflict of interest, this should be disclosed when reporting the results (e.g. who is funding the study or a researcher's personal link to the topic/participants)
46
Applying findings in relation to validity/credibility
It could be considered unethical to apply findings from studies that have not been replicated to ensure that they are reliable
47
Reporting the results in relation to fair reporting by the media
Results of studies are not just reported by the researchers, but also by others (including the media and other psychologists). Anyone reporting the results of a study has an ethical obligation to be truthful in how they are reporting those results (this does not always happen in the media).
