paper 3 - 2022 Flashcards
define determinism
the view that an individual’s behavior is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something
define hard determinism
the view that all behavior is caused by something, so free will is illusion
define soft determinism
the view that behavior may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities
define biological determinism
the belief that behavior is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.
eg. autonomic nervous system on stress and genes on mental health
define environmental determinism
the belief that behavior is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control
skinner - conditioning and reinforcing through our live time
define psychic determinism
the belief that behavior is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control
Freud - free will illusion - human behavior is influenced by unconscious conflict repressed in childhood - Freudian slip (no such thing as an accident)
evaluation of determinism - the law
limitation - position of the legal system on responsibility
hard determinism stance - individual choice doesn’t cause of behavior
this not consistent in the which our legal system works
in law offenders are held responsible for their actions
main principle of law is that the defendant exercised their free will to commit crime
therefore the determinism argument doesn’t work in real world.
determinism evaluation - helped to establish psychology as a science
by adopting methods of natural sciences to produce general laws of human behavior.
also led to the development of behaviorism.
also hard determinism has effective real world application in drug therapies and treatment for mental health issues e.g. flooding for phobias
define free will
the notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces
the humanist approach embraces the concept of free will
strength of free will - practical value
the common-sense view is that we exercise free choice in our everyday lives on a daily basis. however, even if this is not the case, thinking we do exercise free choice can improve our mental health.
a study looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism (lives were controlled by external forces) and found that these adolescents were at significantly greater risk of developing depression.
it seems that people who exhibit an external, rather than internal LOC are less likely to be optimistic.
this suggests that, even if we do have free will, the fact that we believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.
the scientific emphasis on causal relationships
basic principles of science is that every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws
knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.
the lab experiment is the ideal of science as it enables researchers to demonstrate causal relationships
define ethical implication
the consequence of any research in terms of the effects on individuals participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded.
ethical guideline for research
Consent Deception Debriefing Withdrawal Confidentiality Protection of participants
Can do can’t do with participants
implications for research process - social sensitivity
research question = warn the phrasing and investigation may influence the findings. e.g. heterosexual bias = judged against heterosexual norms
dealing with participants = informed consent, confidentiality, psychological harm. e.g sexual abuse victims
findings use = consider in advance, scientific credence to existing prejudice.
strength of social sensitivity - benefits for groups
can have benefits for the group who have been studied
e.g. homosexuality - in 1950’s the DSM-1 listed this as a sociopathic personality disorder but finally removed it in 1970’s.
this change has been credited to the Kinsey report which based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour. this report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
the report also included data on interviews with 6000 women and caused outrage at the time because these were topics that no-one discussed.
this illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive
counterpoint of social sensitivity - benefits for groups
however in some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated
e.g. research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a criminal gene.
if this is true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing.
this suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences.
another strength of social sensitivity - real world application
certain groups rely on research related to socially sensitive issues
the government looks to research when developing important social policies, e.g. decisions related to child care, education, mental health provision, crime and so on.
it is clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically motivated views.
for this reason in the UK there are independent groups such as ONS who describe themselves as being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK economy, society and population. such data is used in psychological research.
this means that psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics
limitation of social sensitive research processes - poor research design
poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which, once in the public area, continue to have an impact
this was certainly the case in relation to Burt’s research were he suggested that intelligence was heritable and could be detected at 11 years old. This is because, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continued to be used and is still used today as a selection tool in parts of the UK.
similarly, access to many independent schools is based on a child’s performance in an entrance exam taken in year 6 and is likely based on the same reasoning - that genetic potential has revealed itself by this age.
therefore, any research on socially sensitive topics need to be planned with the greatest care to ensure findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people
define idiographic
an approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
e.g. case studies or small samples
idiographic approach - qualitative research
small group of individuals interviewed in depth and focus may be on a particular facet of human behaviour (unstructured interview + case study)
such data is then analysed and emerged themes are identified
conclusions may help other people going through similar experiences widely
ideographic approach - examples in psychology
associated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches
e. g. Roger = sought to explain the process of self-development including the role of unconditional positive regards - in-depth conversations with clients in therapy
e. g. Freud = observations of individuals were basis of his explanations of human nature, - little hans +phobias
define nomothetic approach
aims to study human behaviour through development of general principles and universal laws
nomothetic approach - quantitative research
closely fits traditional models of the scientific methods in psychology
hypotheses are formulated, samples of people are assessed in some way, and numerical data produced is analysed for its statistical significance.
seek to quantify human behaviour
nomothetic approach - examples in psychology
behaviourist and biological approaches (though they sometimes use small samples)
e. g. Skinner = studied animals and develop the general law of learning - study looked at one aspect of human behaviour but aimed to establish general laws
e. g. sperry = split-brain research which involved repeated testing and the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation
objective versus subjective - idiographic and nomothetic approaches
nomothetic approach = objectivity - laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardized and objective way. - ensure true replication occurs across sample of behaviour and removes the contaminating influence of bias
idiographic approach = don’t believe in objectivity - people’s individual experiences of their unique context that is important, rather than some underlying reality out there that is waiting to be discovered.
strength of the idiographic approach - complete account
+ contributed to the nomothetic approach
uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual. this may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws.
for example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. for example, cases like HM may reveal important insight about normal functioning which may contributed to out overall understanding.
this suggests that even though the focus is one a fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may still help form scientific laws of behaviour.
counterpoint to complete account - idiographic approach
that said, supporter of the idiographic approach should still knowledge the narrow restricted nature of their work.
meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. in addition, methods associated with the idiographic approach, such as case studies, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on subjective interpretation of the researcher and as such are open to bias.
this suggest that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic approach.
strength of the nomothetic and ideographic approaches - scientific credibility
both approaches fit with the aims of science
the processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences, for example establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing.
however, researcher using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods
for example, using triangulation is used whereby findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity.
also modern qualitative researchers are careful yo reflect upon their own biases and preconceptions as part of the research process
this suggest that both nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology’s status as a science
limitation of the nomothetic approach - losing the person
loss of understanding of the individual
preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of losing the whole person within psychology.
for example, knowing that there is 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has been diagnosed with the disorder.
understanding the subjective experience of schizophrenia might well prove useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options for example
this means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to experience
definition - social exchange theory
the theory of how relationships form and develop.
it assumes that romantic partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards and costs.
a satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive than the current relationship
rewards, cost and profits - social exchange theory
proposed by Thibault and Kelley
relationship reflects the economic assumptions of exchange - min losses and max gains
satisfaction is based on profit it yields
cost and rewards are subjective - very wide range of possible outcomes
e.g. value of cost and rewards may change throughout the relationship or one partner may see the value of a reward as higher than the other.
reward - thing beneficial to the relationship e.g. sex and emotional support
Blau - social exchange theory
relationships can be expensive, so costs include time, stress, energy, compromise and so on
relationships incurs another kind of cost - opportunity cost - your invested time and energy in current relationship means using resources that you cannot invest elsewhere
comparison level - social exchange theory
the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get
- develops from previous experience and relationships
- also influenced by social norms that determine what is the reasonable level of rewards - change with time
- when a relationship is worth pursuing if our CL is high
- link high self-esteem
low self esteem = Low CL = satisfied with less profit from the relationship.
comparison levels of alternatives - social exchange theory
provides context for the relationship
could we gain greater rewards and fewer cost from another relationship?
SET predict that we stay in our current relationship only long as we believe that it is more rewarding than the alternative.
duck = the CLalt we adopt will depend on the state of our current relationship, when rewards outweigh the cost of our relationship then alternative seem less attractive
stages of the relationship - social exchange theory
SET concerns 4 stage through a relationship develops
- sampling stage = we explore the rewards and costs if social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationship or by observing others
- bargaining stage = this marks the beginning of the relationship, start exchanging various costs and rewards, negotiating and identifying profitability
- commitment stage = sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship become more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen
- institutionalisation stage = the partners are now settled down because the norms of the relationship, in terms of rewards and costs are firmly established
strength of SET - research support
psychologist asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and SET variables
found that those partners that were the most committed also perceived the most rewards and fewer costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive
most importantly this was the first study was to demonstrate that the main SET concepts that predict commitment are independent of each other
these findings match predictions from SET, strongly confirming the validity of the theory in gay and lesbians relationships as well as in heterosexual partners
counterpoint of research support for SET
studies into SET ignore one crucial factor that may be an overwhelming consideration for romantic partners - equity
the neglect of equity means that SET is a limited explanation which cannot account for a significant proportion of research findings on relationships
weakness of SET - Direction of cause and effect
claim that dissatisfaction arises only after a relationship stops being profitable and the alternatives are more attractive
but some psychologists argue that we don’t monitor costs and rewards, or consider alternatives until after we are dissatisfied.
when we are satisfied with a relationship and committed to it, we do not even notice potentially attractive alternatives
this suggest that considering costs/alternatives is caused by dissatisfaction rather than the reverse.
Weakness of SET - vague concepts
rewards and costs have been defined superficially in research in order to measure them.
but real world psychological rewards and cost are subjective and hard to define
for example, most people would consider having your partners loyalty to be rewarding but rewards and cost vary across people and even having loyalty is not a reward for everyone.
the concept of comparison levels is especially problematic. it is unclear what the values of CL and CLalt must be before dissatisfaction threatens a relationship
this means the theory is difficult to test in a valid way
define equity theory
an economic theory of how relationships develop. as such it acknowledges the impact of rewards and costs on relationship satisfaction but criticises social exchange theory for ignoring the central role of equity
the perception that partners have about whether the distribution of reward and costs in the relationship is fair.
the role of equity
equity = fairness
Walster = what matter most with equity is that both partners’ level of profit is roughly the same.
lack of equity = 1 over benefits and 1 under benefits from the relationship leading to dissatisfaction
under benefits = feel greater dissatisfaction in the form of anger, hostility, resentment …
over benefits = will likely feel guilty, discomfort, and shame
thus satisfaction is about perceived fairness.
equity and equality
not the size or amount of the rewards and cost that matters, its the ratio of the two to each other.
satisfied = put a lot in and get a lot out
e.g. domestic task don’t need to be shared equally but with equity to what they can do e.g. nightshift cant cook dinner.
equity comes from compensations and negotiations that ensure rewards are shared fairly.
inevitably involves making trade offs
consequence of inequity
distress and dissatisfaction with the relationship if it continues for long enough
greater inequity = greater dissatisfaction (correlation)
applies to both the over and under benefitting partner.
1. changes in perceived equity
2. dealing with inequity
changes in perceived equity
what makes us the most dissatisfied is a change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on.
start of relationship = natural to contribute more than you receive
but if the relationship continues like this (more in than out) then you become less satisfied than you did in the beginning
dealing with inequaity
under benefiting partner = motivated to make the relationship more equitable as long as they believe it is possible and the relationship is salvageable - the more unfair the relationship the less easy it is to restore
possible outcome is cognitive rather than behavioural = revise their perception of rewards and costs so the relationship feel more equitable to them
what was see as a cost a the beginning of the relationship is now accepted as the norm e.g. untidiness, thoughtlessness or even abuse
strength of equity theory - research support
studies of real world relationships confirm that equity theory is a more valid explanation than SET.
survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity with two self report scales.
participants aged 16 to 45 and had been together for 2 years before marrying
the researchers found that the couples who considered a their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as under benefiting or over benefiting.
- confirms that equity is a major concern of romantic couples and is linked with satisfaction, a central prediction of equity theory.
counterpoint of research support as a strength of equity theory
equity may be a feature of satisfaction in relationships
found that equity didn’t increase over time, as would also be predicted by the theory.
nor did the researchers find that relationships which ended and those which continued differed in terms of equity, a future prediction of equity theory.
other variables such as self-disclosure were more significantly more important
this undermines the validity of equity theory because equity does not play the role in relationship satisfaction that is predicted
weakness of equity theory - cultural limitations
may not apply to all cultures
found that there are cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction
individualist cultures = considered their relationships most satisfying when the relationship was equitable
collectivist cultures = were most satisfied when they were over-benefiting (both genders = so cannot be explained by gender differences)
this suggests that the theory is limited because it only applies to some cultures
weakness of equity theory - individual differences
not all partners in romantic relationships are concerned about achieving equity
psychologists suggest that some people are less concerned by equity than the norm
they describe some partners as benevolents who are prepared to contribute more (under-benefit)
others as entitleds who believe they deserve to over-benefit and accept it with no feeling of distress.
in both cases individuals are less concerned about equity than the theory predicts.
- this shows a desire for equity varies from one individual to another and is not a universal feature of romantic relationships.
define commitment (in a relationship)
a romantic partner’s intention or desire to continue a relationship, reflecting a belief that the relationship has a variable long term future.
define satisfaction (in a relationship)
the extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of a relationship exceed the costs
define comparison with alternatives
a judgement that partners make concerning whether a relationship with different partner would bring more rewards or fewer costs
define investment
the resource associated with a romantic relationship which partners would loose if their relationship were to end.
Rusbult’s investment model - initial ideas
commitment is effected by 3 factors = satisfaction, investment and comparison of alternatives
develop on SET ideas
Rusbult’s investment model - satisfaction
based on SET idea of comparison of alternatives
satisfying relationships judged by comparing rewards and costs
seen as profitable if it has many rewards and few costs
generally satisfied when they are getting more out of the relationship than expected
based on previous experiences and social norms
Rusbult’s investment model - comparison with alternatives
results in romantic partners asking themselves - could my needs be better meet outside my current relationship.
are the alternatives more rewarding or less costly
alternatives include not just relationships with other people but the possibility of having no romantic relationships
Rusbult’s investment model - investment
CL and CLalt not enough to explain commitment or relationships would end as soon costs outweighed rewards or attractive alternatives presented themselves
suggests crucial 3 factor - investment = anything we could lose if the relationship were to end
- intrinsic investment = any resources we put directly into the relationship: can be tangible e.g. money or processions but they can also be less easy to quantify such as energy, emotions or self closure.
- extrinsic investments = are resources that previously didn’t feature in the relationship, but are now closely associated e.g. mutual friends, children and shared memories
Rusbult’s investment model - satisfaction versus commitment
commitment = psychological factors that cause people to stay in a romantic relationship
satisfaction = a contributing factor to commitment
important distinction as it explains why a dissatisfied partner may stay in a relationship.
as they are committed because they have made an investment that they do not want to waste
therefore, they will work hard to maintain and repair a damaged relationship, especially when it hits a hard spot
Rusbult’s investment model - relationship maintenance mechanisms
commitment can express itself in everyday maintenance behaviour.
according to the model enduring partners do not engage in tit for tat retaliation but instead promote the relationship.
also put partners interest first and forgive them for serious transgressions
cognitive element of relationship maintenance and repair. committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in a specific way. unrealistic positive about their partner and negative about tempting alternatives and other people’s relationships much more than less committed partners
strength of Rusbult’s investment model - research support
investment model support from a meta-analysis - le and agnew
reviewed 52 studied in 90’s which included 11,000 participants from 5 countries
found that satisfaction, comparison of alternatives and investment size all predicted relationship commitment.
relationships in which commitment was greatest were the most stable and lasted the longest.
outcomes were true for both man and women, across all cultures and for homosexual as well as heterosexual relationships.
validity to Rusbults claim that these factors are universally important feactures in romantic relationships.
counterpoint of research support for Rusbult’s investment model
strong correlation has been found between all the important factors predicted by the investment model.
e.g. le and agnew’s meta-analysis were correlational.
don’t allow us to conclude that the factors identified by the model cause commitment in a relationship.
could be more than committed you feel towards your partner, the more investment you are willing to make in the relationship, so the direction of causality may be the reverse of that suggested by the model.
therefore, it is not clear that the model has identified the cause of commitment rather than factors that are associated with it.
strength of Rusbult’s investment model - explains abusive relationships
model is an explanation of relationships that involve intimate partner violence
Rusbult and Martz studied domestic abused women at a shelter and found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner reported having made the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives
these women were dissatisfied with their relationships but were still committed to them.
therefore the model shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people stay in relationships - commitment and investments are also factors
weakness of Rusbult’s investment model - oversimplifies investment
views investment in a simplistic one-dimensional way
Goodfriend and Agnew point out that there is more to investment than just the resources you have already put in a relationship. in early stages, partners will have made very few actual investments
Goodfriend and Agnew extended the model to include the investment partners make in their future plans.
motivated to commit to each other because they want to see their cherished plans for the future work out.
this means the original model is limited because it fails to recognise the true complexity of investments, especially how how planning for the future influence commitment
define phase model of relationship breakdown
an explanation of the stages people go through when a relationship is not working.
once one of the partners is dissatisfied, there are 4 phases in the process each with different focus;
intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing
steve Duck model of relationship breakdown
An explanation of the stages people got through when their relationship is not working.
Once one partner is dissatisfied, there are four phases in the process, each with a different focus: intra psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing.
Duck suggests that the ending of a relationship is a process that takes time and goes through distinct phases that are marked by a threshold.
intra-psychic phase
Threshold: “I can’t stand this anymore”
Focus on cognitive processes occurring within the individual.
Dissatisfied partner worries about the reasons for their dissatisfaction, centring mostly on their partners shortcomings.
Mull over thoughts privately (weigh over pros and cons and evaluate alternatives) and may only share with a trusted friend
Dyadic phase
Threshold: “I would be justified in withdrawing”
Focus on the interpersonal processes between the two partners – a point where they can longer avoid talking about their relationship.
Series of confrontations where dissatisfactions are aired. – characterized by anxiety, hostility, complaints about lack of equity, resentment over imbalanced roles and rethinking commitment.
Two outcomes – determination to end the relationship and renewed desire to repair it. If rescue attempts fail the next threefold is reached.
Self-disclosure may become deeper and more frequent in this phase
social phase
Threshold: “I mean it”
Focus on wider processes involving the couple’s social networks.
The breakup is made public, and the partners will seek support and try to forge pacts.
Mutual friends will be expected to pick a side, and gossip is traded and encouraged.
Some friends will prove reinforcement and reassurance whilst other will place the blame on one of the partners. Finally, some will try to repair the relationship.
This is usually the point of no return and the breakup take on a momentum driven by social forces.
grave dressing phase
Focus on the aftermath.
Relationship is dead, so a favorable story about the breakup is created for public consumption to allow it to be buried. – this allows the partners maintain a positive reputation but usually at the expense of the other partner.
Gossip is important in this phase, and it is crucial that each partner tries to retain some social credit by blaming anything but themselves.
Also involves creating a personal story that they can live with that may differ from the public one. This is to do with tidying up the memories of the relationship and a degree of rewriting history.
Traits that were once endearing become reinterpreted in a much more negative fashion.
In the end they will reach the threshold of “time to get a new life”.
strength of ducks theory - real world application
P – one strength of the model is that it suggests ways in which relationships breakdown can be reversed.
E – this model is useful because it recognizes that different repair strategies are more effective are some points in the breakdown than at others.
E – for example, duck recommend that people in the intra physic phase could be encouraged to focus on their worrying on the positive aspects of their partner. Also, as a feature of the dyadic phase is communication, any attempt to improve this and wider social skills could be beneficial in fostering greater stability in the relationship
L – these insights can be used in relationship counselling to help people through difficult times. Therefore, Duck’s model is beneficial as it has real world application
counterpoint of real world application of ducks model
P – however, an issue with the Duck’s phase model is that it has a cultural bias affecting it ability to be applied to the real world.
E – this is because the model is based on research into relationships breakdowns in individualist cultures, especially the US. According to Moghaddam et al relationships in individualist cultures are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end.
E – But relationships in collectivist cultures are less easy to end and involve the wider family. In fact, the whole conception of a romantic relationship differs between cultures.
L – this means the model’s application would not be useful in all cultures, as it struggles to explain the breakdown of relationships in collectivist cultures.
limitation of duck’s model - an incomplete model
P- one limitation is that the original model described is an incomplete explanation of breakdowns.
E- Duck and Rollie added a fifth phase after grave dressing called the resurrection phase. This is where Ex-partners apply the experience gain from the recently ended relationships to future relationships.
E- the researchers also argued that progression from one phase to the next is not inevitable because it is possible to return to an earlier point at any point in any phase. Finally, the processes that occur in relationship breakdown are more important than linear movement from one phase to the next.
L- Therefore, the original model does not account for the complexity of breakdown and its dynamic nature.
limitation of ducks model - early phases are less understood
another limitation of the model is that it underexplains the early phases of breakdown.
this is because much of the research is retrospective.
participants in studies generally report their experiences some time after the relationship has ended, so what they recall might not always be accurate early phase occur longer ago.
partners can be in the intra-psychic phase for a long time so recall it may be particularly distorted.
this means that the model may not explain the early parts of the breakdown as well as the later phases.
define self disclosure
revealing personal information about yourself.
Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops.
These self-disclosures about one’s deepest thoughts and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately.
define absence of gating
face to face relationships often fail to form because of obstacles such as facial disfigurement that some people might find off putting. These barriers or gates are absent in the virtual world allowing relationships to begin when they might not offline
self disclosure in virtual relationships
self disclosure is a crucial feactures of face to face relationships in the offline world.
in recent years researchers have turned their attention to the role of self-disclosure in social media based relationships.
how does self-disclosure operate in virtual relationships?
