Paper 3 - Forensic Psychology Flashcards

Question

What was the procedure of Lombroso's research to support the atavistic form?

Answer 1

Lombroso examined the facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts, both living and dead. He examined in all 383 skulls of dead criminals and 3839 living ones.

Answer 2

He concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

Answer 3

Distinct racial undertones within Lombroso’s work Many atavistic characteristics such as curly hair, dark skin, and fleshy lips are most likely to be found on people with African descent. Can lend support to eugenic philosophies of the time. "scientific racism" to be misused by politicians with dangerous consequences.

Answer 4

Lombroso suggested that the facial characteristics are not necessarily the cause of their offending, just a sign of being an evolutionary throwback. This is a weakness because these differences in facial and cranial structure can be influenced by other factors such as poverty or poor diet, not evolutionary development.

Answer 5

Poor level of control (no control group) May have found that the results between a criminal and non criminal group were not any different. Goring (1913) replicated the study with 3000 London criminals and a control group, found no increase in atavistic features, arguing against the idea.

Answer 6

Lombroso has been hailed as ‘the father of criminology’. He is credited as shifting the emphasis in crime research away from morals and criminal thinking patterns towards a more scientific approach (genetics and evolutionary influences). This is a strength because in many ways Lombroso is heralded as beginning criminal profiling. In this way he made a major contribution to the science of criminology

Answer 7

That there are candidate genes which can predispose you to criminal tendencies and behaviours.

Answer 8

The MAOA gene - which controls noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin. Low activity MAOA means less neurotransmitters broken down in the brain.

Answer 9

Brunner et al (1993) Studied a Dutch Family where it became apparent that many of the males in the family across several generations and lived in different parts of the country have repeatedly committed acts of violent criminal behaviour. When studied he found that each of the family members had MAOA-L, And the males in the family who had not committed any criminal behaviour had normal MAOA activity

Answer 10

Lange et al (1930) He studied 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where one of the twins had spent time in prison. 10 of the MZ twins had a co-twin who had spent time in prison 2 of the DZ twins had a co-twin BUT - may have been due to environmental similarities.

Answer 11

Caspi et al (2002) They carried out a longitudinal study over 20 years where they followed over 1000 male children from birth to adult hood and found that maltreated children who also had MAOA-L were more likely to develop antisocial problems

Answer 12

“Genotypes can moderate children’s sensitivity to environmental insults”

Answer 13

Individuals who experience antisocial personality disorder show reduced activity in the Prefrontal cortex This part of the brain is thought to be responsible for decision making, impulse control and regulating our emotions

Answer 14

Adrian Raine (2000) PET scans on brains of 41 participants charged with murder pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) and compared to a matched pair Found significant reduction in the volume of grey matter in the PFC - potentially identified parts of the brain which may be behind criminal behaviour.

Answer 15

The reduction in the size or activity of the PFC has not been proved to be responsible directly for the behaviour of criminals and could be due to other factors suggested by the genetic explanation such as less MAOA activity or abuse or maltreatment early in life. Or, could be the other way around e.g. criminal behaviour causes the decrease in PFC grey matter Therefore we should be cautious about explaining behaviour through a purely neural view.

Answer 16

Another limitation is that these explanations are biologically reductionist. Criminality is complex and explanations that reduce offending behaviour to genetic or neural level ignore higher level explanations. Crime runs in families, but so does poverty, deprivation, and mental illness. This makes it difficult to disentangle the effects of genes and neural influences from other factors. Too simplistic

Answer 17

Lange’s research was poorly controlled (e.g. judgements of whether twin pairs were MZ or DZ based on appearance not DNA testing) as it was 1930. Also most twins are reared in the same environment, so concordance rates may be due to shared learning experiences rather than genetics. Methodological issues such as confounding variables mean twin studies of criminality may lack validity.

Answer 18

Eysenck suggested that personality types are innate and based on the nervous system we inherit, and some people can have a criminal personality type.

Answer 19

Criminal personality = neurotic extravert and high psychoticism

Answer 20

People who seek excitement and stimulation Explained by levels of cortical arousal Within the brain stem is the RAD (reticular activating system) which is thought to filter how much stimulation the brain received

Answer 21

Extraverts have an underactive nervous system where the RAS filters too much, constantly seeking excitement and stimulation thus engage in risk tasking or criminal behaviours which offer an adrenaline rush to compensate for naturally lower levels of stimulation

Answer 22

An individuals emotional instability People high in neuroticism are more likely to react strongly to stress than stable people.

Answer 23

Neurotics have an overactive limbic system, which includes areas such as the amygdala and the hypothalamus which regulate emotional responses like fear and aggression. Making them likely to lash out. Neurotics have a high level of reactivity to the sympathetic nervous system – they respond quickly to situations of threat. This means that they tend to be nervous, jumpy and over-anxious

Answer 24

Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification. Which is typical of neuroticism

Answer 25

These individuals are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone and are therefore: * Cold * Unemotional * Prone to aggression

Answer 26

* Neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overact to situations of threat. * Extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activities * Psychotics are aggressive and lacking empathy

Answer 27

In the process of socialisation, children are taught to be able to delay gratification and be more socially oriated Nervous systems in people with high E and N makes it difficult to learn So learn less anxiety responses to antisocial impulses.

Answer 28

The Eysenck Personality Inventory, a psychological test that locates respondents along E and N dimensions to determine their personality type

Answer 29

Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) carried out a Quasi experiment which assessed 2070 male prisoners who were compared to a control group of 2422 males. On measures of E, N and P, prisoners recorded higher scores than the control group which accords with the prediction of the theory. This is a strength because it adds creditability to the theory by backing it up with empirical evidence.

Answer 30

The theory recognises that personality may have a genetic basis, as Eysenck links criminality to the functioning of the nervous system. This is a strength because it is a more holistic approach that acknowledges both biological and psychological factors in the development of criminal behaviour.

Answer 31

Adrian Raine suggested that reduced function of the prefrontal cortex can lead to less self-control, which fits well with that Eysenck suggested with neuroticism

Answer 32

Eysenck’s theory is questioned in research by Bartol et al (1979) who studied Hispanic and African American offenders in a prison and divided them into six groups depending on their criminal history and offence. They found that all groups were actually less extraverted than a non-criminal group. They thought this is because it was a very different cultural group to the one Eysenck tested.

Answer 33

People will blame their biology and not take responsibility for their actions. The belief they cant do anything about their nervous system and a lack of free will is at odds with the justice system. A purely deterministic view is at odds with societies understanding of responsibility.

Answer 34

Edwin Sutherland

Answer 35

Edwin Sutherland believed that instead of crime being innate, a result of biology. He suggested that crime is a learned behaviour: Criminal behaviour (values/attitudes/techniques) are learnt like any other behaviour – through associations and interactions with different people

Answer 36

Behaviourism and SLT Pro criminal attitudes The four key factors

Answer 37

Operant reinforcement - In the context of crime this can be approval or gaining status from peers and family. (based off the work by BF skinner) Vicarious reinforcement - If someone sees someone else getting approval or rewarded for criminal behaviour, that will encourage them to do so to. (role models / imitation / identification)

Answer 38

When a person is socialized into a group they are exposed to the attitudes of the group. Pro criminal attitudes justify or promote criminal behaviour (e.g. if it benefits you, it is justifiable) Sutherland argues that if a person acquires more pro than anti criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend.

Answer 39

Deviant norms and values

Answer 40

Frequency, Duration, Intensity, Priority

Answer 41

The more often a person interacts with others who engage in criminal behaviour, the more likely they are to adopt those behaviours

Answer 42

The longer the exposure to criminal influences, the greater the likelihood of developing criminal behaviour.

Answer 43

Strong emotional bonds with pro-criminal individuals can lead to higher likelihood of adopting criminal behaviours

Answer 44

The significance of the relationships in a person’s life matters. Early interactions have a greater impact on shaping behaviour.

Answer 45

the offender also learns techniques to carry out crime which is learned from others i.e. how to break into a house through a locked window. This offers an account of how crime may ‘breed’ among specific social groups and communities. Which can also explain why those in prison reoffend on release – they have ‘learnt’ techniques for crime whilst in prison.

Answer 46

Farrington et al (2006): The Cambridge Study in Delinquency Development He carried out a longitudinal study (from 8 years old to 50) which measured 411 boys from working class, white families in an inner-city area of South London 6% of the families accounted for 50% of all convictions This supports Sutherlands theory that criminal behaviour is situational rather than dispositional, suggesting that crime is a learnt behaviour

Answer 47

If all types of crime come from the same processes, then any type of criminal behaviour can be explained by the key concepts and dispositional factors suggested by Sutherland. e.g. burglary – usually by inner city, working class or white-collar crime – fraud / tax evasions carried out by middle-class

Answer 48

This theory puts a lot of emphasis on how the environment shapes behaviour such as the influence of parents and peers you associate with. However, much research has pointed to how criminal behaviour is not just nurture, but more so the complex interplay between nature and nurture. e.g. Caspi et al (MAOA-L)

Answer 49

Suggests that if you are brought up in an area where crime rates are higher, you are more likely to be a criminal This can potentially lead to the stereotyping of people from certain cultural backgrounds, and people can be likely to deny opportunities to these people as they can believe that these people are more likely to commit a crime

Answer 50

Blackburn (1993)

Answer 51

That if the superego (the moral part of the personality) is inadequate, then criminality is inevitable as the Id (pleasure principle) is not properly controlled and therefore does what it wants. Every urge and impulse is satisfied.

Answer 52

1. Weak superego 2. The deviant superego 3. The over-harsh superego

Answer 53

Weak superego - will not identify with a same sex parental figure and will not internalise moral characteristics during the phallic stage

Answer 54

a. If the superego that the child internalises a moral code which is at odds with societal norms

Answer 55

Develops when an individual’s conscience is excessively critical. The superego imposes unrealistic standards on the individual This may (unconsciously) drive the individuals to commit criminal acts to satisfy the superegos overwhelming need for punishment.

Answer 56

A lack of falsifiability – the unconscious concept within Freudian theory means that its application to crime is not open to empirical testing and therefore doesn’t align with the principles of science. For this reason, psychodynamic explanations are considered pseudoscience (fake science). Therefore, Blackburn’s theory of explaining behaviour is questionable as it is hard to validate through experimental research

Answer 57

This explanation seems to downplay the role of other factors which can influence criminality, for example Sutherlands Differential Association theory suggesting that crime is a learned behaviour, showing how friends and family play a crucial role in shaping criminal personalities. Psychic determinism

Answer 58

Failure to establish a bond during the first few years of life means that the child will experience damaging and irreversible consequences in later life An example is a personality type known as ‘affectionless psychopathy’ (lack of guilt, empathy and concern for others

Answer 59

Supporting research - 44 thieves study 14 had affectionless psychopathy, 12 of which had prolonged separation In a control group of non criminals, only 2 children had experienced prolonged separation Bowlby’s conclusions: the effects of early maternal deprivation had caused affectionless and delinquent behaviour leading to crime

Answer 60

It is the only explanation of offending which considers emotional factors. Unlike cognitive theories, it considers the involvement of feelings of anxiety or rejection in offending behaviour. It also recognises the role of innate drives and early childhood experiences in moulding adult personality. So psychodynamic explanations address multiple factors and offer some useful insights into the effect of childhood experiences on adult criminal behaviour.

Answer 61

The idea that unconscious factors are driving our behaviour with no emphasise on free will, this brings about the idea that we cannot be held accountable for our own behaviour and instead blame our parents, which in essence is at odds with the justice system and our understanding of moral accountability and responsibility.

Answer 62

Hostile Attribution bias Minimalisation

Answer 63

When an offender misinterprets social cues as hostile or threatening when they are not. Offenders may misread nonaggressive behaviour (e.g. being looked at) and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent response. They have a cognitive distortion to believe that their hostile behaviour is a result of other people’s actions, instead of feeling guilt or shame, they rationalise the behaviour

Answer 64

Schonenberg et al (2014) presented 55 offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared with non-aggressive matched control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the emotionally ambiguous facial expressions as angry and hostile.

Answer 65

Minimalization is where offenders downplay or deny the seriousness of an offence. Burglars may describe themselves as “doing a job” or “supporting my family” as a way of minimalizing the seriousness of their offence

Answer 66

Barbaree (1991) found that among 26 incarcerated rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimized the harm the had caused the victim

Answer 67

It tells us how they justify such behaviours, but it does not explain the root cause of offending. Do distortions come from something innate and biological, or through their upbringing? This suggests that we may need to look at alternative explanations such as genetics or Eysenck’s criminal personality to explain why people commit crimes.

Answer 68

Another strength is it has practical applications for potential reforms. For example, understanding cognitive distortions helps treat criminal behaviour (e.g. CBT helps offenders take responsibility for their behaviour). Understanding thought processes is crucial for challenging and changing criminal behaviours thinking. This can help to stop criminals reoffending and therefore benefit society.

Answer 69

Level 1 – Pre-Conventional Level 2 - Conventional Level 3 – Post Conventional

Answer 70

He presented children at different ages with moral dilemmas to determine what stage of moral reasoning they were at.

Answer 71

Punishment and Reward

Answer 72

Law and order Social approval

Answer 73

Ethical principles Social contract

Answer 74

Kenny et al (2007) carried out a quasi-experiment with two groups, one condition were young offenders, and the other were young non-offenders. They were asked to carry out similar moral dilemmas that Kohlberg carried out e.g. Heinz Dilemma and they found that the group of offenders had lower levels of moral reasoning, especially violent offenders. Think in terms of themselves, rather than moral reasoning.

Answer 75

It is descriptive not explanatory. Cognitive theories don’t give us much insight into why the offenders committed the crime. It questions whether cognitive explanations can give us a fully valid explanation of the causes of criminal behaviour His theory is good in explaining how offenders think, but not so good in explaining the factors at the root of their criminal behaviour

Answer 76

Dilemmas are hypothetical scenarios which don’t reflect how offenders behave in real-life high-pressure circumstances. Therefore, it can be argued that Kohlberg’s theory is limited as it stems from research which lacks mundane realism

Answer 77

Carol Gilligan - Imposed etic of care Beta bias - all male sample, generalised to all population.

Answer 78

Custodial Sentencing – Confining individuals in prison or similar institutions for a defined length of time as punishment for their crimes

Answer 79

Retribution - The level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime Rehabilitation - Help them reform, when they leave prison, they can take their place in society Deterrence - General deterrence for a warning for everyone else, or personal deterrence. Incapacitation - Taking someone out of society to protect the public from them from immediate reoffending

Answer 80

Rehabilitation Deterrence

Answer 81

The ministry of justice in 2023 stated that 57% of the UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release, prisons are more focused on retribution and incapacitation. Norwegian prisons have some of the lowest recidivism rates in the world (17%). Prisons are much more centred around rehabilitation rather than deterrence, incapacitation and retribution

Answer 82

Institutionalisation - they struggle to manage with life outside of prison, so may reoffend. Stress and depression - higher rates than normal population Brutalisation - insensitive to the pain of others due to repeated exposure to violence Labelling - social stigma, lose key roles such as being a parent or worker which can lead to identity crisis or loss of self worth.

Answer 83

This is seen in the Stanford Prison Experiment, where the realities of a prison were replicated so well that several participants in the study showed visible signs of severe emotional distress The SPE demonstrated how quickly psychological deterioration can occur in such environments.

Answer 84

It lacks ecological validity. Critics argue that the SPE lacks ecological validity due to many environmental factors, such as the location being artificial in the basement of a psychology department to simulate a prison. Secondly, the participants were aware they were part of a study and may have exaggerated their role or behaviour. Ended after 6 days, long term effects unsupported

Answer 85

There is little to tell us about if the prison environment was the result of the psychological damage, or whether that was a preexisting factor which stems from their criminal background.

Answer 86

A longitudinal study measuring prisoners mental health before, during and after imprisonment, however such studies are rare and difficulty to conduct due to external factors and controlling prisoners outside of prison. Therefore, much of the existing research is correlational rather than causational.

Answer 87

One strength of custodial sentencing is that there is opportunity for rehabilitation. For example, offenders can become better people in prison and less likely to reoffend. This can happen is they have access to education, training and anger management scheme which many prisons offer. This is a strength because it suggests prison can be a worthwhile experience if offenders can access these programmes. The potential for rehabilitation is there.

Answer 88

All behaviour is learnt therefore certain behaviours can be unlearned Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment

Answer 89

A structured reward system where prisoners earn tokens for good behaviour. These tokens can then be exchanged for tangible rewards

Answer 90

Primary reinforcers: Naturally rewarding and satisfying basic human needs, such as food, water or relief from discomfort. These reinforcers do not require any prior learning to be effective. Secondary reinforcers: Have no inherent value but gain significance through association primary reinforcers. In a prison system, tokens in a token economy system act as secondary reinforcers, because they can later be exchanged for desirable items such as privileges or snacks, making them powerful motivators for behavioural change.

Answer 91

It incentivises good behaviour It Reinforces the link between actions and consequences

Answer 92

Hobbs and Hold (1976) Use of token economy programme with young delinquents One group of 125 boys involved in a token economy system were compared to a control group with no use of a system. Over 14 weeks, they saw a significant increase in positive behaviour (33%) compared to the non-token economy group

Answer 93

Blackburn (1993) argued that positive changes in prison may quickly be lost when the offender is released. Token economy works well inside prison, but progress is unlikely to be maintained outside.

Answer 94

The conditions of behaviour modification are regarded as manipulative and dehumanising by some. Participation often obligatory for offenders rather than optional. An offender who decides not to comply with the scheme loses privileges (e.g. contact with loved ones) through withdrawal of tokens, and this is ethically questionable.

Answer 95

A strength of behavioural medication is that it is applicable to a wide range of criminals. Anger management, as the name suggests, is just tailored towards violent and angered crimes. Whereas behavioural medication is tailored to the criminal and what behaviours they need to work on. Additionally, it does not rely on the criminal’s willingness to change and improve themselves. Therefore, it can be argued to be more effective as it applies to a wide range of offenders, However without true internal transformation, is behaviour modification really an effective solution.

Answer 96

A method of reducing and atoning for offending behaviour through reconciliation between offender and victim, as well as the wider community

Answer 97

Rehabilitation of offenders – understanding the true impact of their actions and committing to meaningful change Atonement for wrongdoing – encouraging offenders to take responsibility, not just deal with legal consequences. Appreciate the victim’s perspective – Giving the victim a voice in the process, a chance for them to express their feelings and find closure in the process

Answer 98

Trained mediator Offender firstly takes accountability Victim then explains psychological damage it caused, making offender consider the human impacts of their crime Allows for costs to be repaid, personal justice Then there are follow up interventions to ensure the offender sticks to plan

Answer 99

Sherman and Strang (2007) Meta Analysis - 36 studies Effective in reducing recidivism, increasing satisfaction of victim, more likely for the criminal to take accountability

Answer 100

One strength of the RJ programme is that it is very diverse. For example, there is flexibility in the way the RJ programmes can be used (unlike custodial sentencing) and RJ covers a wide range of possible applications (prisons and schools etc.) This is a strength because the scene can be tailored and adapted to the needs of the individual situation therefore and it may be more effective than other forms of crime prevention,

Answer 101

One limitation of the RJ programmes is that their success depends on the commitment of the participants and potential offender manipulation of both the offender, and prison

Answer 102

They are often done in different ways and methods. This inconsistency can lead to different results and make the programmes less effective. E.g. some mediators may not have enough training, thus treat sensitive situations incorrectly and potentially harm the participants and the process’s trustworthiness.

Answer 103

Focuses on changing the way a criminal think. It comes from cognitive psychology and the idea of schemas, if anger fuels their offending, then changing the way they think about anger, can change their behaviour.

Answer 104

Cognitive preparation Skill acquisition Application practice

Answer 105

The offender reflects on their experience of anger and triggers. Offenders are guided to identify specific stressors or triggers that provoke their anger

Answer 106

Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with the triggers more effectively. Cognitive Skills – Positive self-talk. Behavioural skills – Assertiveness training them to help communicate more effectively. Physiological skills – Methods of relaxation and/or meditation.

Answer 107

Offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a monitored environment using role-play. The successful response would be met with positive reinforcement

Answer 108

Ireland (2004) Studied 50 young male offenders split into two groups, one with anger management and one control. Self report + prison reports carried out 2 weeks prior, and 8 weeks after Found it was effective, even long term

Answer 109

The application stage is based on role play which does not cover all the possible situations in which a trigger can arise in real live. The controlled role-play scenarios are very different to a busy pub environment on a Saturday night.

Answer 110

Holistic approach as it acknowledges that offending is complex and is caused by social, physiological and cognitive elements. Anger management aims to tackle cognitive skills, behavioural and physiological skills. This is a strength because it is less reductionist in its method to reduce recidivism

Answer 111

CBT trained therapists – costly and time consuming

Paper 3 - Forensic Psychology Flashcards

(135 cards)