Paper 3 - Issues and debates

Question 1

Gender bias

Answer 1

The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences.

Question 2

Alpha Bias

Answer 2

An alpha bias refers to theories that exaggerate the differences between males and females.

Question 3

Beta bias

Answer 3

A beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females.

Question 4

Andocenrism

Answer 4

Theories which are centred on, or focused on males.

Question 5

Define Universality

Answer 5

When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture.

Question 6

Outline Universality

Answer 6

Bias may be an unavoidable part of the research process, in that all researchers are likely to be influenced by things like the social and historical context in which they live, their own education and training, etc.
However, in Psychology we try to find ‘facts’ about human behaviour which are OBJECTIVE and free from bias.

Question 7

Outline some key researchers who have been accused of gender bias

Answer 7

FREUD
His theory of Psychosexual Development, castration anxiety, penis envy, suggest women are a WEAKER sex and are therefore INFERIOR to males (reflecting the patriarchal view of the Victorian era in general). In addition, Freud saw femininity as an expression of FAILED masculinity and that females are psychologically defined by the fact that they realize that they are not male!
In addition, Freud argues that female VANITY is a DEFENCE MECHANISM women use which is designed to make up for their sexual inferiority by focusing peoples attention on their ‘physical charms’!,

KOHLBERG
His theory of MORAL DEVELOPMENT which is based largely on a longitudinal study, which utilizes an entirely MALE sample – he argued that although his research involved all males, the developed theory of moral development was universal and applied to both males AND females. This was attacked by GILLIGAN) – this can be argued to ANDROCENTRIC as well as suffering from a BETA BIAS.

Question 8

Outline what an alpha bias refers to and a problem with alpha bias is

Answer 8

Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females.

The evolutionary approach in psychology has also been criticised for its alpha bias. This is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and it is argued that the evolutionary perspective shouldn’t be used to justify gender differences.

Question 9

Outline an example of Alpha bias from psychology is

Answer 9

For example, in his psychoanalytic approach, Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos.

Question 10

Outline what Beta Bias refers to and a problem with Beta bias is

Answer 10

A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting
that there are real and enduring differences between the two sexes. The consequences
are that theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other, but typically devalue
women.

Question 11

Outline an example of Beta Bias from psychology is

Answer 11

There is also evidence of beta bias in psychological research. Male and female participants are used in most studies, but there is normally no attempt to analyse the data to see whether there are significant sex differences. Where differences are found, it may be possible that these occur because researchers ignore the differential treatment of participants. For example, Rosenthal (1966) reported that male experimenters were more pleasant, friendly, honest, and encouraging with female than with male participants. This led Rosenthal to conclude: “Male and female subjects may, psychologically, simply not be in the same experiment at all.

Question 12

Define Androcentrism

Answer 12

Androcentrism means being centred on, or dominated by males and can be conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way) or unconscious. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world. Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) argued for there being two types of gender bias: alpha and beta bias.

Question 13

Give a example of androcentrism in psychological research

Answer 13

A popular example of androcentrism is related to female PRE-MENSTRUAL SYNDROME. Some researchers suggest that the existence of PMS stereotypes female emotional responses (especially aggression) as IRRATIONAL and purely a result of hormonal changes. However, male aggression is often thought to be a RATIONAL response to external pressure (BRESCOLL and UHLMAN 2008)

Question 14

Evaluate Gender bias in psychology

Answer 14

Gender Bias has serious negative implications for psychological theory and assumptions about human behaviour. Gender bias leads to distorted representations of men and women. When research or theories favor one gender over the other, they fail to accurately capture the full range of human experiences.
For instance, if studies predominantly involve male participants, the findings may be generalized to both sexes, ignoring potential differences. When research neglects women’s experiences, it can harm them in several ways: In healthcare, Medical research biased toward male participants may lead to inadequate understanding of women’s health issues. Gender bias affects career opportunities, pay, and leadership roles for women Biased research reinforces societal norms that limit women’s choices and perpetuate inequality.

Gender bias may lead to sexism within the research process. Due to its gender bias, psychology may be responsible and guilty of supporting (and developing) a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research. Inaccurate Research Findings: Gender bias can lead researchers to overlook or misinterpret important psychological differences between genders. This can result in flawed research findings that fail to capture the true diversity and complexity of human behaviour. For example, if a study only focuses on male participants or fails to consider the unique experiences of women, the findings may not be generalizable to the broader population. This perpetuates stereotypes and reinforces gender biases, ultimately hindering the advancement of knowledge in psychology. Underrepresentation of Women in Leadership Roles: Gender bias within psychology can contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within academic institutions, professional organizations, and clinical settings. This lack of representation not only limits the diversity of perspectives and experiences within the field but also creates barriers for women seeking career advancement. As a result, talented female psychologists may face systemic obstacles in their career progression, leading to a loss of valuable expertise and perpetuating the gender disparity within the discipline.

However, an awareness of gender bias has resulted in a greater degree of reflexibility and has had major practical and theoretical applications. An awareness of gender bias in psychology means that current researchers are much more careful when designing their studies and developing their theories in order to avoid possible gender bias. In addition, an awareness of gender bias and gender differences has resulted in a number of studies that explore gender specific elements. For example, some psychologists now attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women. As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes, which is important for reducing gender bias. Finally, an awareness of gender bias issues has led to the development of CRITERIA that aims to avoid gender bias in research (WORELL, 1992). For example, women in research should be studied in meaningful real life situations and should be genuine participants, not objects of study. Diversity within groups of women should also be studied, recognised and even emphasized. All of these aspects add detail and depth to contemporary psychology theory and give us a more holistic explanation of human behavior, while avoiding gender bias conclusions.

Question 15

Why is cultural bias a problem

Answer 15

If research is based only on one culture, it is arguable that the results and conclusions are only relevant for that culture – i.e. the conclusions will not extrapolate to other cultures. If the ‘norm’ in for a behaviour is only judged from the standpoint of one culture, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard will be viewed as abnormal . This is known as cultural bias

Question 16

Give an example of cultural bias in psychological research

Answer 16

For example, when ASCH and MILGRAM’s studies into conformity and obedience are replicated in other parts of the world, very different results are often found (Kilham and Mann, 1974). It can be argued therefore that this research only reflects the cultural norms of the place of the original study. Perhaps Americans at the time were just more conformist and obedient compared to people from different cultures.

Question 17

Outline Alpha bias and beta bias in culture

Answer 17

Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, and that recognition of these enduring differences must always inform psychological research and understanding.

Beta bias, on the other hand, occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume that all cultures are the same.

Question 18

Outline Ethnocentrism and give a psychological piece of research

Answer 18

Ethnocentrism refers to a particular form of cultural bias and is a belief that one cultural group is superior . In psychological research, this may be upheld by the belief that any behaviour that does not conform to the dominant (normally Western) model are somehow deficient or abnormal. This criticism is levelled against a number of studies into Psychological Abnormality (many do not recognise cultural specific behaviours ) but also to classic research such as Ainsworth’s strange situation.

The Strange Situation judges and categorizes infant behaviour using behavioural categories developed from American observations. This approach assumes that behaviour has the same meaning in all cultures, which is not necessarily true.
The research procedure reflects the norms and values of American culture, making it ethnocentric2.

Question 19

Outline the distinction between Etics and Emics in psychology

Answer 19

An ETIC approach looks at behaviour from the outside of a given culture and attempts to describe behaviour that are UNIVERSAL. An EMIC approach looks within / inside cultures and identifies behaviours that are SPECIFIC to that culture.

Question 20

Outline Cultural relativism and imposed ethics in ainsworth’s research

Answer 20

Ainsworth’s research could be an example of an IMPOSED ETIC, where a researcher imposes their own Culture or Cultural Understanding upon the rest of the world, assuming that it is the norm for everyone; she studied behaviour within one culture and ASSUMED the ideal attachment type can be applied universally, which may be inaccurate. In addition, using the strange situation to measure attachments outside of the West is an example of an imposed etic; the procedure was developed in the West based on Western cultural norms relating to child rearing, so it may not be an appropriate way to study the child-parent relationships in different cultures.

Question 21

Outline Cultural relativism

Answer 21

BERRY argues that that Psychology is often guilty of making imposed etics, developing universal models and theories of human behaviour which come about through studying only one particular culture. Psychologists should be more mindful of CULTURAL RELATIVISM – the idea that the things that are observed in research may only make sense (i.e. they are only RELATIVE) from the perspective of the culture being observed – they cannot be applied to different cultures. Therefore the CONTEXT is considered vital.

Question 22

Evaluate and make commentary of cultural bias in psychology

Answer 22

We have to be careful not to OVER EMPHASISE Cultural Bias in contemporary psychological research, especially with the INDIVIDUALISTIC vs COLLECTIVIST distinction
In the past, the great distinction between cultures was whether they were INDIVIDUALISTIC or COLLECTIVIST. Individualistic cultures (like the West, USA) value independence, personal freedom and individual achievement. Collectivist cultures such as India and China are said to place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group. However, critics have argued that the development of modern society, in particular the increased INTERCONNECTEDNESS between cultures, means that this distinction largely does not apply. For example TAKANO and OSAKA (1999) found that in 14 out of 15 studies, the traditional distinction between individual and collectivist cultures did not exist.
Because of this we have to be cautious when considering cultural bias in research. Perhaps research is more culturally valid than the critics lead us to believe.

In addition, we have to be cautious that we do not ASSUME ALL BEHAVIOUR IS CULTURALLY RELATIVE. The idea of cultural bias and imposed etics are important reminders to researchers about the importance of appreciating culture. However, it should not be assumed that ALL behaviour is culturally relative and that there are no universal behaviours. For example, research by EKMAN, 1989, established that basic facial expressions for emotions are universal (the same all over the world). In addition, the notion of interactional synchrony is also thought to be a universal aspect.
Therefore to fully understand human behaviour, we have to consider that some behaviours MAY be universal! However, we do have to careful with the operationalization of variables, as this may be culturally specific.

A major ADVANTAGE of increasing the awareness of cultural bias is that it has had major PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS< and therefore has had a major CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOLOGY.
By identifying the possible issues of cultural bias, we have significantly increased our understanding of the impact of culture, of cultural differences and also of culture specific behaviours.This has had major benefits, for example in the diagnosis of mental illness where culture specific behaviours were often mis-diagnosed as symptomatic of psychological abnormality.
In addition, this knowledge has also had PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES. Recent issues of diagnostic manuals such as the DSM now include a list of culture specific behaviours. This helps clinicians as it highlights the need to appreciate cultures specific behaviours and greatly increases the VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY of the diagnostic process. Therefore the increases sensitivity to cultural bias and cultural differences has had major benefits, both with Psychology and beyond. It has also resulted in psychology developing as a discipline and reduces the charges of ‘scientific racism’, in addition to ensuring research, conclusions and theories have greater VALIDITY (as they recognise the role and impact of culture).