Part 2 Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
What does Quantitative Methodology emanate?
A
Positivist/post-positivist perspective
2
Q
What is the focus of Quantitative Methodology?
A
predominant ‘biomedical’ focus
3
Q
What does Quantitative Methodology use objectivity, logic, experimental/scientific processes to do?
A
- compare
- infer causation
- predict outcomes
4
Q
What is Descriptive Quantitative research?
A
structured observations or survey (or both) used to describe a phenomenon, situation, group or characteristic
5
Q
What is Exploratory Quantitative research?
A
to gain new insights, discover new ideas & increase knowledge about a phenomenon (usually conducted when little is known about a topic)
6
Q
What is Causal Quantitative research?
A
experimenting (statistically speaking) to assess cause and effect
7
Q
What is the purpose of a research design?
A
- answer research question
- control for/understand biases
- direct analysis
- direct interpretation
8
Q
What does the design of a research project do?
A
- directs the research process
- framework of who, what, when, where & how
9
Q
What is a Variable?
A
a measurable characteristic that varies among subjects
10
Q
What are the different types of variables?
A
- independent
- dependent
- extraneous variable or covariate
11
Q
What is an Independent Variable?
A
interventions or presumed cause
ex. salt intake
ex. self-care symptom management
12
Q
What is a Dependent Variable?
A
outcome or presumed effect
ex. blood pressure reading
ex. quaility of life
13
Q
What is an Extraneous Variable or Covariate?
A
alternative or other possible causes
ex. Sedentary
ex. severity of illness
14
Q
What is Control?
A
the measures that the researcher uses to hold the conditions of the study uniform and avoid possibe impingement of bias on the dependent variable or outcome
15
Q
What are the different ways to control for Extraneous Variables? (6)
A
- utilizing a homogenous sample
- random assignment to groups
- consistent data-collection procedure
- minimize threats to internal validitiy
- using experimental design (manipulation of independent variable)
- statistical manipulation
16
Q
What is a Natural Setting?
A
uncontrolled, real life situation
17
Q
What is Partially Controlled?
A
manipulated or modified in some way
18
Q
What is Highly controlled?
A
Artifical environment for sole purpose of doing research
19
Q
What is Internal Validity?
A
the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the population we are studying and, thus, are not due to methodological errors.
20
Q
What is External Validity?
A
the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable to patients in our daily practice, especially for the population that the sample is thought to represent
21
Q
If a study shows a high degree of internal validity, what does that mean?
A
We can conclude we have stronge evidence of causaility
22
Q
If a study shows a high degree of External validity, what does that mean?
A
we can conclude we have little or no evidence of causality
23
Q
What are threats to Internal Validity? (6)
A
- selection bias
- instrumentation
- history
- maturation
- testing
- mortality
24
Q
What do threats to external validity do?
A
compromise our confidence in stating whether the study’s results are applicable to other groups
25
What are the threats to external validity?
- selection effects
- reactivity
- measurement effects
26
What study designs control threats to validity?
- Experimental: control most
- Quasi-experimental
- Non-experimental
- Descriptive
27
What are the Cause-effect classes?
- experimental
- Quasi-experimental
28
What are the Description classes?
- non-experimental
- descriptive
29
What is an Experimental Design?
- there is an intervention that is controlled or delivered
- there is an experimental and control group
- there is a random assignment to groups
30
What is Random Assignment to groups?
- internal validity issue
- equal chance that extraneous variables exist in both groups
- experimental/control group assignment
31
What is Random Selection from population to sample?
- external validity issue
- equals extraneous variables in the sample that are true for the population
- sampling strategy
32
What are the strengths of Experimental Design?
- establish causality/causal direction
- control
33
What are the limitations of Experimental Design?
- may be difficult to implement
- generalizability (external validity) may be low
- not ethical for some conditions
34
What is a Quasi-Experimental Design?
- there is an intervention that is controlled or delivered
- there is an experimental group with or without a control group
- there is typically no random assignment to groups
35
What are the Strengths of Quasi-Experimental Design?
- establish causality/causal direction
- control
- practical, real world adaptability
- people not always willing to be randomized, so this works for them
36
What are the limitations of Quasi-Experimental Design?
- cannot make clear cause-and-effect statements
- generalizability (external validity) may be low
- not ethical for some conditions
37
What is Non-experimental Research?
research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable
38
What are the two types of non-experimental research?
- Survey Studies
- relationship/difference studies
39
What are Survey Studies?
- structured interview
- self-report: Questionnaires, online surveys/computer-assisted
- usually a large number of respondents
40
What is the purpose of Survey Studies?
to obtain info about the prevalence, distribution, and interrelations of phenomena within a population
41
What are the advantages of Survey Studies?
- flexible & broad in scope
- data can be collected in a number of ways
42
What are the disadvantages of Survey Studies?
- data relatively superficial, rarely probes deeply into human complexities
- low response rates vs. number of participants needed
- limitations with self-report
43
What is the purpose of Relationship/Difference Studies?
to look at the relationships or differences between variables that can provide a deeper insight into a phenomenon
44
What are the different Relationship/Difference Studies?
- correlational
- developmental
45
What are the different types of Development Relationship/Differences Studies?
- cross-sectional
- longitudinal/prospective
- retrospective/ex post facto
46
What are Correlation studies?
- involves the measurement & determination of the relationship between 2 variables
- cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect
47
What is Postive Correlation?
one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increases (r values ranges from 0 to +1)
48
What is Negative Correlation?
increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable (r values ranges from -1 to 0)
49
What is the Correlation Coefficient (r)?
numerical index that reflects the relationship between two variables. Value: between -1 and +1
50
What are the advantages of Correlational Studies?
- can be applied to many populations, focus on a wide range of topics, & info can be used for many purposes
- a framework for exploring the relationship between variables that cannot be inherently manipulated
51
What are the disadvantages of Correlation studies?
- correlation does not equal causation
- no randomization in the sampling procedures because the study deals with pre-existing groups; therefore, generalizability is decreased
52
What is Cross sectional Research?
examine the relationship between variables of interest as they exist in a defined population at one particular time
53
What are the advantages of Cross-sectional Research?
- fast
- less expensive
- usually involve large number of participants
- can collect a large number of variables
54
What are the disadvantages of Cross-sectional Research?
- no causal association
- harder to infer changes over time
- threat to internal/external validity
55
What is Prospective (longitudinal cohort) Research?
one or more groups are followed across time and compared on one or more variables
56
What are the Strengths of Prospective Research?
- time line established
- large number of participants
- large number of variables
57
What are the limitations of Prospective Research?
- very expensive, long term follow-up needed
- large loss to follow-up possible
- threat to validity
58
What is Retrospective Design Research?
an effect (outcome or DV) observed in the present is linked to a potential cause that occured in the past
59
What are the strengths of Retrospective Research?
- fewer participants
- large number of variables
60
What are the limitations of Retrospective Research?
- very difficult to find adequate control group
- beware of alternative hypothesis as the reason for documented relationship
- threats to validity
61
What is an Accessible population?
aggregate of cases that conform to designated (eligibility) criteria and are accessible for a study
62
What is Sampling?
Process of selecting subjects (elements) to represent a population
63
What is Nonprobability Sampling?
does not involve selection of elements at random; is rarely representative of the population
64
What is Probability Sampling?
- involves random selection of elements
- allows researchers to estimate the magnitude of sampling error
65
What is important to remeber about Random probability?
- Random probability does not equal randomization of participants
- randomization increases internal validity
- random sampling increases external validity
66
What are the types of Probability sampling?
- simple random
- stratified random
- cluster
- systematic
67
What is Simple Random Sampling (SRS)?
- needs a sampling frame
- each element has an equal & independent probabillity of selection
- uses a random number generator, random number table etc.
68
What is Systematic Sampling?
- needs sampling frame
- uses the frame's order to locate element
- faster than simple but may introduce bias IF the frame is arranged in a way that coincides with sampling occurence
69
What is Stratified Random Sampling?
- the population is first divided into two or more strata, from which elements are randomly selected
- aim is to enhance representativeness
70
What is Disproportional Sampling?
- a probability sampling technique used to address the difficulty researchers encounter with stratified samples of unequal sizes
- requires "adjustments" or "weighting" to arrive at estimates of overall population values
71
What is Multi-stage Cluster Sampling?
- involves selecting broad groups (clusters) rather than selecting individuals, and is typically the first stage of a multistage approach
- less accurate than simple or stratified random sampling
- BUT more practical than other types of proability sampling
72
What are the different types of Non-probability Sampling?
- convenience
- quota
- purposive
- network/snowball
- consecutive
73
What is Convenience Sampling?
- use elements available at time & place of study
- does not require sampling frame
- can be fast and efficient but may not provide representative sample - people who are readily available might be atypical of the population
74
What are Quota Sampling?
You first divide the population into strata and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota (predetermined number)
75
What is Consecutive sampling?
recruiting all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval
76
What is Purposive Sampling?
uses researchers' knowledge about a population to hand sample members
77
What is Heterogeneous Sample?
participants are diverse
78
What is Homogeneous Sample?
- participants are similar
- generalizability may be limited to people who are similar to your target population
79
Describe the Sample Size:
- estimated before the study to determine number of elements required to demonstrate treatment effect
- a large sample size does not make up for non-representative sample
80
What occurs if the sample size is too small?
can result in type II error or low "power": non-significant result due to too few observations rather than because intervention is not effective/no relationship between IV/DV
81
What occurs if the sample size is too large?
unnecessary cost without added benefit to study results
82
What is Power?
the likelihood that a researcher will find a significant result (an effect) in a sample if such an effect exists in the population being studied
- if there is not enough power in a study, it would not matter how big the effect size
- commonly set a 0.80 (1-beta)
83
What is Power Analysis?
procedure used to estimate sample size requirements prior to undertaking a study (to diminish the likelihood of type II error)
- not usually required for pilot studies
84
What is Alpha?
probability of making a type I error (commonly set at 0.05 or 0.01)
85
What is Beta?
probability of making a type II error (usually 0.2 or 20%)
86
What is Effect Size?
measure of the magnitude of the effect (group difference) is
87
Describe a Small Effect Size:
- correlations around 0.20
- requires larger sample size
88
Describe Medium Effect Size:
- correlations around 0.40
- requires medium sample size
89
Describe Large Effect Size:
- correlations around 0.60
- requires smaller sample size
90
What are the different Data Collection Methods?
- biological or physiological
- observational
- Questionnaries, surveys/instruments
- records or available data
- interviews
91
What are the different types of Biological/Physiological Measures?
- physical
- anatomical
- chemical
- mircobiological
92
What are the advantages of Biological/Physiological Measures?
- objective
- precise
- sensitive
93
What are the disadvantages of Biological/Physiological Measures? (5)
- can be invasive
- expensive
- hard to obtain
- may need special training
- may cause reactive effects
94
What are the different informations that Observational Methods can obtain? (5)
- patient's conditions
- verbal communication
- non-verbal communication
- activities
- environmental conditions
95
What are the advantages of Observation methods?
ideal for studying complex interactions & measuring people's actions/reactions
96
What are the disadvantages of Observation methods?
- reactivity effects
- observer bias
97
What are the advantages of Records?
usually inexpensive, historical
98
What are the disadvantages of Records?
- availability
- ethics
- bias
- missing data
99
What are the advantages of Questionnaries?
- fast
- economical
- variety
- participants can remain anonymous
100
What are the disadvantages of Questionnaries? (5)
- breadth vs. depth
- response rates
- recall bias
- social desirability bias
- incomplete items
101
What is Social Desirability Response Bias?
giving answers that are congruent with prevailing social values
102
What are Extreme Responses?
selection of extreme alternatives
103
What is Internal Reliability?
Stability within an instrument - looking to ensure items measure the same attribute/construct
104
How is Internal Reliability measured?
Cronbach Alpha statis - normal range is between 0 to +1, higher values are associated with greater internal reliability
105
What is the Test-retest correlation coefficient?
stability over time - ability to obtain similar scores in different situations/repeated testing
106
What is the Reliability Coefficient?
is a way of confirming how accurate a test by giving it to the same subject more than once and determining if there's a correlation and similarity between the two scores
- over 0.80 as a result is good
107
What is Interrater Reliability?
the degree of agreement among independent observers who rate, code, or assess the same phenomenon
108
What are the 3 types of Content Validity?
- Content
- criterion-related
- construct
109
What is Content Validity?
evaluates if the test is fully representative of what it aims to measure
110
What is Criterion-related Validity?
measures if the results accurately measure the outcome they are designed to measure
111
What is Concurrent Validity?
shows you the extent of the agreement between two measures taken at the same time
- subtype of criterion-related
112
What is Predictive Validity?
ability to predict future behaviour/future correlation with a measure of the same concept
113
What is Construct Validity?
the degree to which the test measures the concept that it’s intended to measure
114
What is Convergent Validity?
how closely a test is related to other tests that measure the same thing
115
What is Divergent Validity?
Shows that concepts or measurements that might be in the study is different/unrelated to what you are actually studying
116
Describe the difference between Validity and Reliability?
- validity is about the appropriateness of a test
- reliability is about the consistency of the scores produced
117
What is Capture Variability (Variance)?
how the scores vary across participants and identify what is typical and atypical among the data
118
What is Data Reduction?
summarizing or describing the characterisitcs of a set of data
119
What is the Mean?
the average value from a data set
120
What is Standard Deviation (SD)?
- the most common measure of variance
- describes how far the values stray from the mean
121
What is Inferential Statisitcs?
- allows you to make predictions (“inferences”) from that data
- you take data from samples and make generalizations about a population
122
What is the P-value?
the probability that the results were due to chance and not based on your program/intervention
123
What occurs if the P-value is low?
the lower the p-value, the most likely it is that a difference occurred as a result of your program
124
What occurs if the P-value is less than the alpha value?
you can conclude that the difference you observed is statistically significant
125
What is the Confidence Interval?
a range around a measurement that conveys how precise the measurement is
126
What is the long-held minimum threshold for acceptance?
95% or p < 0.05, meaning that the threshold is considered statistically significant
127
What does Statistically Significant mean?
indicates that the results were unlikely to be due to chance
128
What does the absence of statistically significant mean?
it does not mean that the finding is unimportant
129
What is Mixed Methods Research?
a procedure for collecting, analyzing and "mixing" both quatitative and qualitative research methods in a single study to understand a research problem
130
What is Inductive Reasoning?
- details to general picture
- foundation of most qualitative research
- theory generating
131
What is Deductive Reasoning?
- general picture to specific explanantions
- foundation of most quantitative research
- theory testing
132
What are the different types of Mixed Methods Designs?
- Convergent Parallel Design
- Explanatory Sequential Design
- Exploratory Sequential Design
