Past Paper Q's

Question 1

Define Extraneous Variables

Answer 1

Variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but affect the results of all participants’ behaviour equally.

Question 2

Define Confounding Variables

Answer 2

Variables that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher, that affect some participants’ behaviours but not others.

Question 3

Define Independent Variable

Answer 3

The variable the psychologist manipulates and controls to see how it affects behaviour.

Question 4

Explain what is meant by the term ‘significance value’

Answer 4

A numerical value that is usually expressed in value including two decimal places. This level tells you the margin of error that could occur in your results and shows the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis.

Question 5

Explain what is meant by ‘p<0.01’.

Answer 5

The probability that the results will be down to chance is 1% or less.

Question 6

Explain why a psychological researcher might use a p value of p≤0.01 rather
than p≤0.05.

Answer 6

A ‘stricter’ or more stringent level of measurement, such as p≤0.01 may be used in research to reduce the margin for error, as p≤0.05 has more probability that the findings are due to chance, which may not be acceptable in some research, e.g. clinical trials.

Question 7

Explain the difference between the meaning of the symbols ≤ and < .

Answer 7

≤ means less than or equal to whereas < only means less than.

Question 8

Briefly explain how a psychologist would select a random sample for research.

Answer 8

The names of everyone in the target population is listed and then the required number of participants are selected through a random system, such as a computer-generated list or selected from a hat.

Question 9

Evaluate the use of random sampling in psychological research.

Answer 9

The sample is more likely to represent the target population because there will be less chance of bias when selecting the participants, as the researcher does not choose who takes part. However, the process can be more time consuming because it may be difficult to gain access to a full and accurate list of the target population and the randomly selected participants may not agree to take part, meaning the researcher would need to start again.

Question 10

Define ‘Test-re test’ reliability.

Answer 10

This involves testing and retesting the same participants over time, with the same test, and comparing their scores. If the scores are the same the test has external reliability.

Question 11

Define ‘Split-half’ reliability.

Answer 11

This involves splitting a participant’s test answers in half and seeing whether the participant got the same or similar scores on the two halves. If so, internal reliability is high.

Question 12

Explain two advantages of conducting psychological research in the field compared to a laboratory environment.

Answer 12

Research conducted in the field may be more ecologically valid as the participants are in their natural environment and will behave more naturally than in the controlled setting of a laboratory.

Question 13

Briefly explain the process of peer review in psychological research.

Answer 13

• The researcher’s report/article is submitted to a panel of peers for review.
• The reviewers scrutinise the methodology, data analysis and conclusions and
  submit their comments to the editor.
• The editor may reject the article or submit it to the author to make revisions.
• The revised article is re-submitted to the editor for publication.

Question 14

Discuss the benefits of using quantitative data compared to qualitative data in psychological research.

Answer 14

• Quantitative data can be easier to analyse compared to qualitative data because statistical tests can be carried out on quantitative data which may be quicker than analysing detailed qualitative data, such as interview transcripts.
• Qualitative data may provide more insight into the reasons behind the behaviour which might make it more valid than quantitative data which might only tell us what is happening rather than why it is happening.

Question 15

Explain one advantage of using a self-selecting sampling technique.

Answer 15

The researcher can be confident that the selected participant will definitely want to take part, unlike randomly selected participants, which means they are less likely to drop out of the study.

Question 16

Explain one disadvantage of using a self-selecting sampling technique.

Answer 16

Self-selected volunteers are more likely to be unrepresentative than randomly selected participants, as people who volunteer for research may be more confident than those who are less willing to take part.

Question 17

Explain what is meant by ‘primary sources’ in psychology.

Answer 17

Information sources that is directly collected by the researcher first-hand e.g. they collect data through a questionnaire, experiment and interviews for their research.

Question 18

Explain what is meant by ‘secondary sources’ in psychology.

Answer 18

Information sources that have not been directly collected by the researcher e.g use of methods such as content analysis of existing data, or literature reviews.

Question 19

Explain the difference between quantitative and qualitative data.

Answer 19

Quantitative data is a type of data that can be measured numerically by the psychologist, so that statistical analysis can be completed, whereas qualitative data is a type of data that can be observed, but not measured numerically, usually in the form of words.

Question 20

Describe the following ways of assessing validity in psychological research:
(a) concurrent validity

Answer 20

Validating a measurement by comparing it with an established measurement that has known validity. If similar results occur on both tests, then this new test is valid. If not, then the new test would have to be redesigned and tested.

Question 21

Describe the following ways of assessing validity in psychological research: construct validity

Answer 21

The most sophisticated test of validity as it looks at whether the overall results reflect the phenomena as a whole (external validity). Checking the existing definitions of the behaviour being studied and redesigning the test if it measures a different construct.

Question 22

Define the term ‘case studies’.

Answer 22

A method which involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon, which uses a descriptive analysis of a person, group or event. It is a holistic study through one or more methodologies that is usually longitudinal

Question 23

Explain one strength and one weakness of using case studies in
psychological research.

Answer 23

Strength
* Higher validity due to in-depth data and/or analysis.
* Less ethical issues due to the use of several methods.
Weaknesses
* Less reliable due to the varied methodology.
* Possible ethical issues of anonymity or confidentiality due to studying
an individual or small group.

Question 24

Describe what is meant by the term ‘participant observation’.

Answer 24

A research method where the researcher takes on the role of a participant whilst observing other participants’ behaviour around them.

Question 25

Describe what is meant by the term ‘event sampling’.

Answer 25

Event sampling is a method of recording behaviour in an observation. The researcher records how many times a particular event occurs.

Question 26

Using your knowledge of psychology, briefly discuss why conducting research in a laboratory may be better than conducting research online.

Answer 26

* Higher level of control reduces the impact of extraneous variables. * Use of standardised data collection may improve the reliability of the findings from laboratory research. * Online research could be completed by anyone which may break ethical issues of consent for vulnerable participants. * Online research could ask sensitive topics which may mean you cannot protect the participant from distress at the time.

Question 27

Describe the process of peer review.

Answer 27

1. Researcher submits article to journal. 2. Journal assessed by editor of journal. 3. If accepted by editor, article is sent to reviewers (who is also an expert in the field). 4. Reviewers are normally kept anonymous from the article’s author. 5. Reviewers submit their comments to the editor. 6. Editor may reject the article or return it to the author to make revisions. 7. Revised article is re-submitted to editor for publication.

Question 28

what does > mean.

Answer 28

Greater than

Question 29

Define Test re-test reliability.

Answer 29

* Involves testing and retesting the same participants over time, with the same test, and comparing their scores. If the scores are the same the test has external reliability.

Question 30

Define Inter-reliability.

Answer 30

* Where two or more psychologists produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure, agreed coding system, or correlation of their data.

Question 31

Define Split-half reliability.

Answer 31

* Involves splitting a participant’s test answers in half and seeing whether s/he got the same or similar scores on the two halves. If so, internal reliability is high; if not, it is low and individual questions would need to be redesigned.

Question 32

Explain how psychologists use ethics committees to manage the risk posed by ethical issues.

Answer 32

Ethics committees are normally found in Universities or any places that do research. Their role is to approve the design of research before the researcher completes the research, they are likely to use ethical guidelines like those published by the BPS to assess if the research proposal is ethical or not. If they don’t approve first time, they may ask the psychologist to make amendments to their research design, or it may not allow them to conduct their research if their proposal has too many ethical issues. Ethics committees are normally made up of researchers and lay people.

Question 33

Explain how psychologists use ethical guidelines to manage the risk posed by ethical issues.

Answer 33

Ethical guidelines are published by organisations such as the BPS and everyone who is a member of the BPS has to follow the guidelines or they may risk being censured by the BPS. The guidelines provide a set of recommendations about how psychologists should and should not conduct research. Current BPS guidelines emphasise the need to respect the autonomy, privacy and dignity of individuals and communities involved in psychological research.

Question 34

Evaluate the use of primary sources in psychological research.

Answer 34

The researcher can control the format in exactly how data is collected. It will specifically relate to the aims of the research. Data collected may lack validity due to social desirability or demand characteristics. Research from primary sources takes time and effort to prepare, administer and analyse. Research from primary sources may contain methodological problems that corrupt the findings they produce. May take a single point of view arguing in support of a particular theory.

Question 35

Explain one strength of the use of brain scans in psychological research.

Answer 35

MRI is best suited for cases when a patient is to undergo the examination several times successively in the short term, because, unlike PET, it does not expose the patient to the hazards of radiation.

Question 36

Explain one weakness of the use of brain scans in psychological research.

Answer 36

Only a range of activities can be investigated, due to limitations of being stuck in a machine.

Question 37

Explain one advantage of using repeated measures design.

Answer 37

Research using a repeated measures design requires fewer workers to act as participants than an independent groups design would to produce the same amount of results.

Question 38

Explain one disadvantage of using repeated measures design.

Answer 38

Demand characteristics might mean that the office workers may realise what the research is about and so give a higher wellbeing rating in the second month.

Question 39

Explain one weakness of conducting research in the field.

Answer 39

* It is more difficult for the researcher to control for confounding or extraneous variables in the field, than it might be in a laboratory.

Question 40

Evaluate the strengths of using semi-structured interviews.

Answer 40

Strengths: * More detailed information can be obtained from each respondent than in a structured interview as the interviewer can tailor the questions to the respondent’s responses, get deeper insights into the respondent’s feelings and thoughts. * Can avoid asking irrelevant questions. * Allows the researcher to investigate topics which may vary greatly amongst participants with more sensitivity.

Question 41

Evaluate the weaknesses of using semi-structured interviews.

Answer 41

* Semi-structured interviews require interviewers with more skill than a structured interview because the interviewer must develop new questions on the spot. The requirement for well-trained interviewers makes semi-structured interviews more expensive to produce. * Questions developed on the spot may lack objectivity more than predetermined ones because of their instantaneous nature, as the interviewer has little time to reflect on what to say.

Question 42

Describe the format for reporting psychological investigations.

Answer 42

* Investigations normally being published in a journal (print and/or on-line) * Identification and description of typical content of various key elements in a psychological investigation such as Title; Abstract; Introduction; Methods/Procedures; Results; Discussion/Conclusions; References. * Abstract: brief summary of the research. * Introduction: brief summary of relevant literature. * Methodology: design chosen. * Procedure: steps that were taken by the researcher. * Findings/result: data gathered and analysed. * Discussion: of results and conclusion.

Question 43

Explain the steps you would follow to calculate a standard deviation.

Answer 43

I would calculate the standard deviation by completing the following steps: 1. Calculate the mean of the data set. 2. Take the mean away from each score in the data set. 3. Square each difference. 4. Add together each of the squared differences 5. Divide this by N – 1 (the number of scores in your data set - 1). 6. Find the square root of this value and this is the standard deviation.

Question 44

Explain one strength of using standard deviations in psychology.

Answer 44

Strength: * More precise and informative measure of dispersion than the range. * Highlights if the mean is an appropriate measure of central tendency.

Question 45

Explain one weakness of using standard deviations in psychology.

Answer 45

Weakness: * Can only be used if the data set is normally distributed and not skewed. * More difficult to calculate than the range score.

Question 46

Describe the following methodologies: (a) Non-participant observations.

Answer 46

* A research method where the researcher watches and records participants’ behaviour without interfering in any way (from a distance).

Question 47

Describe the following methodologies: (b) Case studies.

Answer 47

* A method which involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon, which uses a descriptive analysis of a person, group or event. It is a holistic study through one or more methodologies that is usually longitudinal.

Question 48

Describe the following methodologies: (c) Structured interviews.

Answer 48

* A research method that includes standardised questions (like in a questionnaire), which are known as an interview schedule, and are usually asked face to face.

Question 49

Explain the strengths of longitudinal studies.

Answer 49

* Reduces recall bias as participants are being researched as their life occurs, rather than research which may ask them to think back to experiences they may have had a long time ago. * Helps us understand the order in which events may occur. * Helps us establish links between early life circumstances and later outcomes.

Question 50

Explain the weaknesses of cross-sectional studies.

Answer 50

* Cohort variables may exist, such as individuals born during the same time period may share important historical experiences. * Recall bias can occur if the study asks participants about experiences they may have had a long time ago. * Difficult to indicate causal relationships (cause and effect).

Question 51

Give two advantages of using a matched pairs design in this research.

Answer 51

* Less chance of demand characteristics as participants only take part in one condition. * May be less participant variables as the researcher has matched participants for abilities or characteristics which may affect performance.

Question 52

Define the term 'target population'.

Answer 52

The group of individuals a researcher is interested in studying.

Question 53

Explain two weaknesses of conducting research on-line.

Answer 53

 Problems with consent: many people are used to accepting 'terms and conditions' on-line without reading them; this means participants may also do something similar with the details in the consent form and therefore not understand the aim and procedures involved with the research.  Limited methods: most on-line research uses surveys, questionnaires and other self- report methods. There are few opportunities for experimentation and so the research may be subject to problems such as social desirability bias.

Question 54

Describe how brain scans have been used in psychology.

Answer 54

 In MRI, the patient is placed inside a large circular magnet that causes the hydrogen atoms in the body to move. When the magnet is turned off, these revert to their original positions, producing an electromagnetic signal that is translated by the computer into pictures of brain tissue.  In PET, a radioactive tracer is combined with a sugar (flurodeoxyglucose); a hormone (norepinephrine) or a protein (Cyclo RGDfC). A radioactive tracer is injected into the participant/patient awaiting the scan. After a period of time the patient/participant are placed into a computer scanner. The positrons smash into electrons releasing gamma rays, this emission is detected by the scanner. The detected emissions are plotted the varying levels of activity in the brain are recorded, sometimes a 3-D plot is produced.

Question 55

Discuss the strengths of using brain scans in psychology.

Answer 55

Advantages/Strengths  Allows for objective assessment of brain structure/function.  Allows investigation of live brains, rather than waiting for post mortem.  MRI is best suited for cases when a patient is to undergo the examination several times successively in the short term, because, unlike PET, it does not expose the patient to the hazards of radiation.  PET scans reveal chemical information that is not available with other imaging techniques.

Question 56

Discuss the weaknesses of using brain scans in psychology.

Answer 56

Disadvantages/Weaknesses  Scans take a long time and can be uncomfortable for patients, not good for those with claustrophobia.  These are extremely costly techniques and therefore not easily available for research.  With PET, the patient has to be injected with a radioactive substance, the technique can be used only a few times.  Only a range of activities can be investigated, due to limitations of being stuck in a machine.

Question 57

Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of using self-selected sampling technique in this research.

Answer 57

Advantage: The only sampling method where the researcher knows the selected participant will definitely want to take part, unlike randomly selected participants. Disadvantage: Self-selected volunteers are likely to be unrepresentative as they might be too nice.

Question 58

Define the term ‘social desirability’.

Answer 58

 Social desirability is when a participant responds in a particular way because they think that the response is what others would find favourable, presenting themselves in the best possible light.

Question 59

Explain two strengths of using a longitudinal study in psychology.

Answer 59

Strengths: * Longitudinal studies control for ‘participant variables’, as the same person is tested on a number of occasions and compared and therefore acts as their own control. They help us establish the order in which events occur. * Cohort variables are not a problem as there is only one group of participants being studied.

Question 60

Explain two weaknesses of using a longitudinal study in psychology.

Answer 60

Weaknesses: * Longitudinal studies can take years to produce useful data for analysis and are therefore inappropriate for immediate results. * Sample attrition occurs when people move, die or decide they no longer want to participate.

Question 61

Explain how you would calculate the following: (a) Median.

Answer 61

* If there is an odd number of scores, then arrange all of the scores in the data set in numerical order and the select the middle value. * If there is an even number of scores, then arrange all the scores in the data set in numerical order, add together the two middle values and then divide this by two.

Question 62

Explain how you would calculate the following: Mode

Answer 62

* Count the frequency of each score achieved in the data set; the score(s) with the highest frequency is/are the modal score(s).

Question 63

Using an example, explain what is meant by the term ‘confounding variables’.

Answer 63

Examples of a confounding variable: Uncontrolled sound when completing a task may impact on some participant’s ability to concentrate. Variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher, that affect SOME participants’ behaviours but not others, having negative consequences for validity.

Question 64

Using an example, explain what is meant by ‘operationalisation of variables’.

Answer 64

Examples of operationalisation: Measuring stress by using the SRRS scale. - Giving a precise definition of the behaviour being manipulated/observed/ measured (IV/DV). This allows for repetition and raises reliability as it is an agreed value that has been attributed to the measurement.

Question 65

Describe two ways in which psychologists manage the risk posed by ethical issues.

Answer 65

Ethics committees are found in most institutions where research takes place and they must approve any research before it begins. The committee looks at all possible ethical issues raised in any research proposal and at how the researcher suggests that the issues will be dealt with, weighing up the benefits of the research against the possible costs to the participants. Members of the committee often include lay people as well as experts in the field. Ethical guidelines are published by organisations such as the BPS and everyone who is a member of the BPS has to follow the guidelines or they will be kicked out of the BPS. One ethical guideline that the BPS proposes is that a researcher shouldn’t deceive participants if it would lead to discomfort, anger or objections.

Question 66

Explain the difference between stratified sampling and quota sampling.

Answer 66

After sub-groups have been identified in the target population, participants are selected opportunistically in a quota sample but are selected randomly in a stratified sample.

Question 67

Explain when it would be appropriate to use the following inferential statistics: (a) Sign test.

Answer 67

* Test of difference. * Nominal level of measurement. * Data is related (repeated measures and matched pairs design).

Question 68

Explain when it would be appropriate to use the following inferential statistics: (b) Mann Whitney U test

Answer 68

* Test of difference. * Ordinal or above level of measurement. * Data is independent (independent groups design).

Question 69

Describe what is meant by the term ‘standard deviation’.

Answer 69

Standard deviation is an indicator of dispersion which indicates how far values are dispersed around the mean.

Question 70

Explain why psychologists may prefer to collect quantitative data rather than qualitative data in psychological research.

Answer 70

Strengths of quantitative * Quantitative data is generally easier to analyse and display than qualitative data. * Quantitative data can generally be collected more quickly, especially from a large sample of participants. * Quantitative data may be less susceptible to researcher bias during analysis. Weaknesses of qualitative * Qualitative data is generally more difficult to analyse and display than quantitative data. * Qualitative data tends to be collected from smaller samples of participants. * Qualitative data may be more susceptible to researcher bias during analysis.

Question 71

Explain one difference between conducting research in the field and conducting research on-line.

Answer 71

Research in the field can utilise the full range of methodologies however conducting research on-line tends to be more limited in the methods it can use, mainly using questionnaires.

Question 72

Describe how psychologists use ethics committees to manage the risk posed by ethical issues.

Answer 72

 Usually found in universities, hospitals or other locations that conduct research.  Consists of a group of people from various disciplines/backgrounds (not just psychology)  Allow for a wider interpretation of ethical guidelines and disperse the responsibility of interpreting ethical guidelines from the individual researcher (who may be biased).  May require researchers to amend their procedures or refuse permission to researchers.

Question 73

Describe how psychologists use ethical guidelines to manage the risk posed by ethical issues.

Answer 73

Ethical Guidelines  Clearly state what is and is not acceptable practice for psychologists.  Offers external bodies and participants know what is and is not acceptable practice in psychological research.  Are produced by the professional bodies representing psychologists, such as the BPS, APA etc.