patho Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
assesses WBC, RBC, hemoglobin/hematocrit, red blood cell indices, and platelets to determine general health, anemias, infections, blood cancers
A
CBC
2
Q
ssesses 5 types of WBCs (basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils).
A
cbc W/DIFFERENTIAL
3
Q
basic or comprehensive, assesses fluid and electrolytes status along with glucose, renal and liver function.
A
cmp
4
Q
(risk for cardiovascular disease) LDL: <100 mg/dL (want it LOW) HDL: >60 mg/dL (want it HIGH); Total Cholesterol: <200 mg/dL; Triglycerides: <150 mg/ dL
A
LIPID PANEL
5
Q
blood glucose levels for prediabetic
A
hemoglobin A1c / 5.6 pre-diabetic
6
Q
powerhouse Cell, creates ATP, hundreds to thousands located w/i each cell
mtDNA -has it’s own DNA; cellular respiration
A
Mitochondria
7
Q
contains DNA, RNA, proteins; nucleolus (RNA), chromosomes, surrounded by nuclear envelope (membrane)
A
nucleus
8
Q
continuous from the nucleus, rough ER contains ribosomes which synthesize proteins from transcription of RNA
A
rough ER
9
Q
continues synthesis, protein folding, storage & transport to Golgi; important in synthesis / storage of lipids & steroids
A
smooth ER
10
Q
packages proteins to be excreted from the cell via membrane bound vesicles; RNA translation occurs to package the proteins into appropriate amino acid combinations
A
Golgi apparatus
11
Q
Proteins or lipids that become glycated as a result of exposure to sugars
Leads to protein cross-linking & aggregation, resulting in altered cell signaling / functioning
A
AGE/ALE
12
Q
medical name for dry skin.
A
Xerosis:
13
Q
“Eczema” chronic itchy, dry red skin,
A
atopic dermatitis
14
Q
dry mouth resulting from reduced or absent saliva flow.
A
xerostoma
15
Q
abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, with inflammation and ridge formation, typically associated with vitamin A deficiency.
A
xerophthalmia
16
Q
Inflammatory triggers:
A
Toxic exposure (environment, pathogenic bacteria LipoPolySaccarides)
Allergenic response: IgE, IgG, (foods)
Oxidative stress
Dysglycemia
17
Q
Inflammation (signs) and regeneration:
A
Vasodilation: heat, redness
Swelling, edema
Tenderness / pain
Regeneration: 1) homeostasis, 2) inflammatory, 3) proliferative, and 4) remodeling
18
Q
Prevent or arrest clot formation; mast cells release it to stimulate local inflammation; anticoagulant used Tx thrombosis
A
Heparin
19
Q
Stored in the granules of mast cells, basophils, platelets; acute inflammation, anaphylatoxins, and histamine releasing factors
A
histamine
20
Q
polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid breaks down via phospholipase A2 into AA which breaks down into LOX / COX (collectively referred to as eicosanoids)
A
arachiodonic acid
21
Q
serve general functions such as gastric epithelial cytoprotection and homeostasis.
A
COX 1
22
Q
inflammatory: (blocked by NSAIDs; creates Prostaglandin H2
PGH2 converts to prostaglandins: helpful in stomach protective effects, causal of pain, fever
PGH2 converts thru platelets to thromboxanes (not good for heart),
PGH2 converts to prostacyclin (heart helpful)
A
COX 2
23
Q
inflammatory response causes bronchial constriction, respiratory issues (asthma)
A
LOX converts to Leukotrienes
24
Q
inflammatory! inhibited by NSAIDs & Aspirin
A
prostaglandins
25
From arachidonic acid by the action of cyclooxygenase (COX) isoenzymes; blocked by NSAIDs
Cause increased inflammation, blood flow, chemotaxis (chemical signals that summon white blood cells), and subsequent dysfunction of tissues and organs
prostaglandins
26
1st defense, QUICK response to acute invasion, large # chemical mediators, slows infectious process but does NOT eliminate pathogen
Innate immunity
27
2nd line defense; Slow responders, chronic longterm, creates immune memory; 2 types: humoral & cell-mediated
adaptive immunity
28
Physical and chemical barriers, such as skin, mucus membranes, tears, and stomach acid; Innate
1st line of defense
29
Non-specific responses to infection: inflammatory response & complement system; Innate
2nd line of defense
30
Adaptive/specific defense, such as lymphocytes, antibodies, plasma cells, memory B cells, T cells; Acquired
ADAPTIVE/3rd line of defense
31
enzyme that catalyses the formation of isopeptide bonds between proteins.
transglutaminase
32
used as a marker to diagnose celiac disease
transglutaminase
33
precursor to RBC, Platelets, Mast cell, 4 of 5 WBCs: Neutrophils, Mono, EOS, Baso
myeloid progenitor cells
34
located in Connective tissue throughout body, release histamine to ↑ vascular permeability so that during inflammation capillaries can leak protein rich fluid into injured tissue.
Mast cells
35
hemostasis, proper clotting
platelets
36
first stage of wound healing
hemostasis
37
wandering macrophages clean up debris & start healing process
monocytes
38
bilobed, fight parasites, food allergens
eosinophils
39
inflammatory response team, secretes lysozymes, defenisins,
basophils
40
become natural killer cells & lymphocytes: B-cells, T-cells, Th1, Th2
lymphoid progenitor cells
41
mature in Bone marrow, reside in lymph nodes
| humoral immunity
B-cells
42
produce antibodies
circulate in blood, body fluids, binds to ANTIGENS to eliminate
major defense mechanism vs bacteria & toxins
require Th2 cells to function
b cells
43
mature in thymus and reside in lymph notes
t cells
44
main defense vs viral, fungal, parasitic invaders
eliminates abnormal cells
long life span
t cells
45
secretes pro-inflammatory cytokines; NKcells,
TH1
46
helps humoral B-cells, produces antibodies, secretes cytokines IL4, IL5, etc, promotes IgE production & activates eosinophils; 90% of AI are TH2 dominant
Th2
47
defensins: indicates inflammation response,
neutrophils
48
(1.5x larger than RBCs) ↑ EOS (>9) parasites, food allergies
eosinophils
49
Macrophages —wandering cleaners evolve into macrophages & dendritic cells
monocytes
50
B & T cells; info re: nutritional health
lymphocytes
51
platelet deficiency
thrombocytopenia
52
not enough RBCs, while Fe, Ferritin & TIBC appear normal
thalassemia
53
Too many rbcs
polycythemia
54
```
accumulated fat in liver
insulin resistance / obese diabetics
due to excessive processed food diet, artificial sugar, high carbs
toxic exposures: chemicals / solvents
alcohol
```
NAFLD
55
transamination to detoxify ammonia requires B6; present in large amounts in the liver tissue and to a lesser amount in kidney and heart; indicator of liver disease
ALT
56
enzyme found in large amounts in the liver, kidney, myocardial and skeletal tissue. SGOT usually elevates with degenerative destructive organ processes. Present in a larger amount in the heart than in the liver
AST
57
used for diagnosis of renal insufficiency
BUN
58
accumulation of bilirubin from increased RBC breakdown
liver injury causing bilirubin impairment
obstructed bile duct —stones
Jaundice
59
phagocytic cells in liver which engulf enteric bacteria
Kupffer cells
60
Produces anti-oxidants —primarily glutathione which erradicates toxins
Storage area for nutrients, proteins: vitamin A,
Regulates hormone function
Produces bile & bile salts to carry toxic substances out of body
Reduces free radicals
Assists in RBC recycling / filters blood to remove toxins
Good liver function
61
Cytochrome P450 enzymes catabolize & disperse materials
inhibited by antihistamines, PPIs, medications
Slows with age, lack of exercise & improper nutrition
Requires B vitamins, folic acid, glutathione, antioxidants, carotenoids, Vit E, Vit C.
Phase 1 detox
62
Conjugation stage, adding special substances (amino acids) to phase 1 end products
fat soluble toxins are turned into water soluble ones for excretion
Requires: B12, glutamine, glycine, taurine, cysteine, sulphurate containing cruciferous veggies & garlic
Phase 2 detox
63
condition that involves white patches or spots on the inside of the mouth.
leukoplakia
64
What is the goal of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
increase BP
65
When the RAAS is activated due to a change in body hemodynamics, the __________________ stimulates the ___________________ cells in the kidneys to release _______________.
sympathetic nervous system; juxtaglomerular; renin
66
What component of the RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system) is created and found in the liver that is activated by renin?
Angiotensinogen
67
What is the role of ACE in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?
It converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.
68
B. Triggers the release of aldosterone
C. Increases the blood volume
D. Causes vasodilation
E. Increases systemic vascular resistance
F. Causes the release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
roles of angiotensin II when it is activated in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system:
69
During RAAS activation, what gland releases aldosterone?
Adrenal cortex
70
What is the role of aldosterone
it causes the kidneys to keep sodium and water
71
During the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation, what gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
Pituitary
72
Select below the CORRECT sequence in how the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system works:
Renin-> Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin I -> ACE -> Angiotensin II
73
Oliguria
abnormally small amounts of urine produced
74
anuaria
failure of kidneys to produce urine
75
polyuria
abnormally large amount of dilute urine produced
76
metabolic syndrome
```
Blood pressure: >130/85
Obesity: waist circumference >40in (M), >35in (W)
Hyperglycemia: fasting glucose >100
Triglycerides: >150,
HDL: <40 (M) <50 (W)
```
77
no Antidiuretic Hormone secreted from pituitary (hypofunctioning) means unable to absorb H2O from renal tubules = large volumes of dilute urine excreted
diabetes insipidus
78
Parathyroid glands secrete
calcitonin
79
autoantibodies attack thyroid cells, mimics TSH & causes ↑ thyroid hormone secretions inspite of pituitary regulation —autoantibodies stimulate TSH receptors common Signs: eyes bulge (Exophthalmos)
Graves disease
80
slow cardio output, lethargy, fatigue, constipation, cold dry skin, slowed body functions
hypothyroidism
81
gland infiltrated by lymphocytes not caused by infection. Autoantibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO) & thyroglobin attacks & destroys TSH receptors. Signs: enlarged gland, ↑ TSH, ↓thyroid hormone as antibody destroys receptors; connected to celiac dz & NCgluten sensitivity
hashimotos
82
Thyroid nutrients
Selenium, Zn, vitamins E, A, D, iodine; adequate amounts Fe, tyrosine, and B vitamins as well
83
Exophthalmos
a bulging of the eye anteriorly out of the orbit: cause: antigen (Immunoglobulin) attaches to fatty tissue behind eye (not T4 cause)
84
gram neg bacteria can trigger thyroid issues —gluten feeds bacteria in the dysbiotic gut
Yersinia
85
IBD characterized by inflammation of ileum
underlying cause is unknown
ulceration of mucosal lining: thickens & scars causing strictures & skip lesions
malabsorption nutrients common —particularly B12
TX: immunosuppressants, steroids, surgery
Supplements: anti-inflammatory botanicals, omega 3s, probiotics Saccharomyces boulardii
Chronh's disease
86
gram negative bacteria (very resistant to antibiotics) causes chronic gastritis, Hpylori creates enzyme “urease” which degrades urea, releasing ammonia which neutralizes stomach acid & allows colony to flourish in distal stomach, proximal duodenum
Spreads via close contact with infected person
Medical treatment: Antacids, PPIs, triple antibiotics
H-pylori
87
found in outer membrane gram neg bacteria, triggers STRONG innate immune response causing inflammation & toxicity: activates cytokines, TNF, nitric oxide,
Detoxify endotoxins: alkaline phosphatase
endotoxins/lipopolyssaccharides
88
rumbling intestinal noises due to movement of gas / liquids
borborygmi
89
anti inflammatory, heart healthy, requires Zn for conversion; helps neurotransmitter dopamine function,
EPA/DHA
90
PUFA; arachidonic (AA) & linoleic acid (LA) essential fatty acid
omega 6
91
PUFA; alpha linolenic acid (ALA) essential fatty acid
Omega 3s
92
bruits
heart murmur
93
cyanosis
blue skin due to poor circulation or inadequate oxygen supply
94
CRP
substance released into blood from liver following acute event; shows increased inflammation
95
elevated levels indicate high risk CVD,
| inhibits nitric oxide due to ^ ROS causing endothelia dysfunction / platelet aggregation, mitochondrial dys, reduced HDL
homocysteine
96
severe chest pain caused by inadequate blood flow into heart, pain radiates to arms, neck, shoulders
angia pectoris
97
measures pressure when heart is contracting
systole
98
relaxation: measures pressure when chamber is refilling
diastole
99
circulates blood to lungs —oxygen poor —pulmonary pump
Right atrium/ventricle:
100
sends blood to peripheral tissues —oxygen rich—systemic pump
Left atrium/ventricle:
101
density and quality of bone reduced.
As bones become more porous and fragile, the risk of fracture is greatly increased.
silent and progressive bone loss.
Often asymptomatic until first fracture occurs
Osteoporosis:
102
genetic disorder of the bones.
| Bones that break easily: condition ranges from mild to severe.
Osteogenesis imperfecta:
103
marked softening of bones
most often caused by severe vitamin D deficiency;
impaired mineralization of the osteoid;
Osteomalacia:
104
childhood dz caused by vitamin D deficiency
characterized by imperfect calcification, softening, and distortion of the bones
typically results in bow legs
Rickets:
105
rare bone infection:
Bones can become infected in a number of ways: Infection in one part of the body may spread through the bloodstream into the bone, or an open fracture or surgery may expose the bone to infection.
Osteomyelitis:
106
PMS, endometriosis, cervical dysplasia, breast cancer, uterine fibroids caused by
estrogen excess
107
menstrual irregularities, amenorrhea
estrogen insufficiency
108
Low levels of cortisol and aldosterone,
caused by an autoimmune disease that damages the adrenal gland.
Symptoms: Weight loss, low BP, hypoglycemia, fatigue, skin hyperpigmentation
hyperkalemia, ↓ Na, salt cravings
low testosterone
Metabolic Acidosis!
Addison’s:
109
Excessive cortisol levels,
caused by external forces such as glucocorticoid therapy or internal forces such as a tumor producing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) causing excess cortisol production
Sx: Weight gain, ↑BP, "moon face," hyperglycemia, a fat pad on the back referred to as a "buffalo hump”
hypokalemia K+, ↑Na, ↑ACTH, ↑testosterone (secondary sex characteristics)
Metabolic Alkalosis!
cushings
110
causes erectile dysfunction; “Andropause”, insomnia, fatigue, ↓muscle mass, ↑ body fat, ↓ bone density, depression, decreased motivation
Nutrients affected: Zn, amino acids
Occurs in Addison’s disease with low functioning cortisol
Testosterone deficiency in men
111
over production growth hormone (GH) from hyper functioning pituitary in adults
Acromegaly:
112
hyper functioning pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone (somatotropin) in children, rare
Gigantism
113
peptide hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It stimulates the growth of essentially all tissues of the body, including bone.
Growth hormone:
114
disease of Tau Protein
Alzheimer’s
115
disease of Schwann’s cells —mylein basic protein
MS
116
due to viral infection CNS or toxic Rx, loss of neurons in substantia nigra midbrain, characterized by low dopamine levels and low B6
Parkinson’s:
117
cause optic issues due to proximity, manifest depending on type of hormone it makes, how much produced, tumor size, patient age=—most are adenomas, glandular tumors that don’t metastasize
Pituitary tumor:
118
Pheochromocytma
vascular tumor of adrenal medulla; irregular secretion of Epinephrine, NE
119
MTHFR
inability to convert folic acid and 5’10THF —> 5-MTHF the active form of folate
120
inherited metabolic disorder caused by an enzyme deficiency resulting in accumulation of phenylalanine and its metabolites in the blood causing usually severe intellectual disability and seizures unless phenylalanine is restricted from the diet beginning at birth
PKU
Phenylketonuria
121
accumulation of glutamate from inability to breakdown a-Ketoglutaric acid (glutamic acid dehydrogenase)
ALS
