Pathology Flashcards
What are the five pathophysiological causes of edema and what is an example of each?
- Increased hydrostatic pressure within the vessels due to impaired venous return or arteriolar dilation - heart failure, liver cirrhosis, venous obstruction
- Decreased plasma osmotic pressure - decreased production of albumin by liver, increased loss of protein by kidney, malnutrition
- Lymphatic obstruction - tumor
- Sodium and water retention
- Inflammation
What is the definition of edema?
Accumulation of fluid within interstitial tissue (and/or body cavities)
What are the three main targets of edema?
Soft tissues
Lungs
Brain
What is dependent edema?
Occurs in areas of body where accumulation of fluid is dependent upon gravity, most commonly associated with heart failure
What is anasarca?
Generalized edema of entire body
Most commonly associated with protein loss by kidneys in glomerular disease
How does heart failure lead to increased hydrostatic pressure?
Leads to decreased renal blood flow which leads to activation of RAAS which leads to retention of salt and water which raises blood pressure
What are the clinical effects of edema in soft tissue, lungs and brain?
Soft tissues - no significant damage but may signal underlying cause
Lungs - impair lung ability and create environment conducive to bacterial invasion
Brain - can only expand under falx cerebri, uncal herniation, or cerebellar tonsils down through foramen magnum
What is the difference between hyperemia and congestion?
H - active accumulation of blood due to increased flow
C - passive accumulation of blood due to impaired venous return
What is the cause and morphology of chronic passive congestion of the lung?
Left sided heart failure
Gross appearance - darkly pigmented, heavy and firm lungs
Hemosiderin in macrophages
What is the cause and morphology of chronic passive congestion of the liver?
Right sided heart failure
Gross appearance is nutmeg liver - shrunken and hemorrhagic centrilobar areas
Fibrosis around central veins
What is the definition and types of hemorrhage?
Extravasation of blood from vessels into extra vascular space
Petechial - pinpoint, caused by thrombocytopenia, platelet dysfunction, increased vascular pressures clotting factor deficiencies
Purpura - larger than petechiae (3-5 mm) - same causes as above, also vascular fragility or trauma
Ecchymosis - larger than purpura (>1 cm) - causes are trauma or fragility
How much of their blood volume must a person lose to die purely from blood loss?
At least 30%
What are the main causes of infarcts?
Obstruction of vessel - thrombosis, embolism, atherosclerosis, extrinsic compression Vessel damage Generalized hypotension (shock)
What is a red infarct?
Blood within infarct
Venous infarcts (artery still pumping blood to tissue)
Organs with dual blood supply and or loose parenchyma (lung)
Reperfusion occurs when blood flow returned
Coagulative necrosis
What is a white infarct?
Organs with single blood supply or solid parenchyma (heart, liver, spleen)
Coagulative necrosis
What is a septic infarct?
Caused by embolization of bacterial vegetational (heart valves) or bacterial seeding of necrotic tissue
Infarct becomes an abscess
What are the factors determining development of an infarct?
Vascular supply - dual arterial supply vs. end-arterial circulation
Rate of development - time allows dev of collateral circulation
Vulnerability of cells to hypoxia - neurons more susceptible than myocytes
Oxygen content of blood - anemic patients more susceptible
What is a thrombus?
A solid intravascular mass formed from circulating blood elements during life
Mixture of platelets, leukocytes, RBCs, and fibrin
What is a clot as opposed to a thrombus?
Form outside of blood vessels when hemorrhage occurs, in vitro, or in blood vessels after death
What is virchows triad?
Endothelial abnormalities
Interruption in normal flow of blood
Hypercoagulability
Where are endothelial abnormalities especially important in thrombi development?
Arteries and cardiac chambers
How do endothelial cells normally maintain blood in normal fluid state?
Preventing platelet adhesion and aggregation
Inactivation of thrombin and other components of coagulation cascade
Breaking down local fibrin deposits with tissue plasminogen activator
What changes occur when endothelial cells are damaged that promote thrombus formation?
Binding of platelets to ECM, mediated by vWF
Injury induces synthesis of pro coagulant molecules including tissue factor and inhibitors of TPA
What are the consequences of stasis?
Platelets brought into contact with endothelial surface, promoting activation
Activated coagulation factors reach high concentrations because dilution prevented
Inflow of inhibitors of coagulation reduced
Endothelial cells activated
What are the most important causes of arterial vs. venous thrombosis?
A - atherosclerosis
V - stasis, then hypercoagulable states
What events is platelet activation associated with?
Release of calcium, ADP, and thromboxane A2 - promote further aggregation and activation
Sets stage for local activation of intrinsic coagulation factors
What is platelet aggregation?
Formation of linkages between fibrinogen and platelets via GpIIb/IIIa glycoprotein receptors on surfaces of platelets
Local accumulation of leukocytes
What consequences does local activation of the coagulation cascade have?
Thrombin promotes further platelet aggregation and leukocyte adhesion - leads to formation of an irreversibly fused contracted platelet mass
Catalyzes formation of thrombin and with factor XIII results in dev of cross linked fibrin mesh work - entraps erythrocytes
What are lines of Zahn?
Gray-tan lines formed from aggregates of platelets, leukocytes, and fibrin
Helps distinguish a thrombus from a postmortem clot
What are clinical manifestations of venous thrombosis?
Majority are silent
Local mechanical obstruction of venous circulation (edema of involved extremity)
Local warmth and tenderness (more common with superficial thrombosis)
Pulmonary embolism
What are the different fate of thrombi?
Dissolution - fibrinolytic activity
Organization and recanalization - fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells can migrate into fibrin-rich matrix –> small collagen scar in wall of vessel, calcification of thrombus, dev of new vessels within substance of thrombus
Embolism
Persistent occlusion - can become calcified or propagate downstream toward heart
What are the different kinda of embolisms?
Dislodged thrombi Tissue fragments Fat droplets Gases Foreign material
What are the main sources of pulmonary thromboemboli?
Deep veins of proximal lower extremities and pelvis
Inferior vena cava
Sometimes right cardiac chambers or other veins
What is massive pulmonary embolism?
Embolic occlusion of more than 50-60% of pulmonary arterial tree
Causes elevation of pul arterial pressure –> burden on right ventricle –> RV dysfunction and decreased output –> decreased LV output –> systemic hypotension, decreased coronary artery perfusion and decreased cerebral perfusion
What’s a minor pulmonary embolism?
Comprises less than 30% of pulmonary arterial circulation
Healthy patients - systemic perfusion pressure remains normal
Preexisting cardiac or pulmonary disease reduces tolerance for minor embolisms
How can a pulmonary embolism be diagnosed?
High index of suspicion (wells score, etc.)
Imaging techniques
Lab studies
What are the important clinical manifestations of pulmonary embolism?
Dyspepsia Tachycardia Substernal chest pain Fluctuating BP Syncope - decreased systemic perfusion
What kinds of tissue fragments can cause embolism?
Fragments of placental tissue
Rarely amniotic fluid
Neoplastic cells
What is the relationship between pulmonary emboli and pulmonary infarction?
Must infarcts caused by emboli but fewer than 10% of emboli produce infarcts
Due to dual blood supply of lungs - bronchial arteries can deliver sufficient blood when pulmonary arteries compromised when they are healthy
Most infarcts are hemorrhagic and can cause hemoptysis
What is shock?
Generalized decrease in perfusion of micro circulation
Also results in accumulated waste products
What changes in brain are associated with shock?
Range from occasional necrotic neurons to generalized brain parenchymal necrosis
What changes in heart occur with shock?
Areas of subendocardial myocyte necrosis - last cells to be perfumed from blood from coronary arteries
What changes with liver occur from shock?
Acute hemorrhagic centrilobular necrosis
Hepatocytes in central regions of hepatic lobules (surrounding central vein branches) last to receive oxygen and nutrient rich blood
Nutmeg appearance