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DG1006 - HHD1&ANATOMY > Pathology > Flashcards

Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

What type of cell is being described?

- any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes

A

prokaryotic cell

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2
Q

Which type of cell is being described?

- any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus

A

eukaryotic cell

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3
Q

Which type of cell is being described?

  • first form of life on earth
  • simpler and smaller
  • no membrane-bound organelles
  • eg. bacteria
A

prokaryotic cell

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4
Q

Which type of cell is being described?

  • larger and more complex
  • membrane-bound organelles
  • cell nucleus (DNA organised in chromosomes)
  • eg. plant, animal, fungi
A

eukaryotic cell

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5
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

  • lipid bilayer (2 layers of phospholipids) embedded with proteins
  • involved in cell signalling
  • transports nutrients into the cell and transports toxic substances out of the cell
A

cell membrane

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6
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

  • predominantly made up of water
  • made up of cytosol, the fluid component
  • it is the medium for chemical reaction
  • provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell
A

cytoplasm

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7
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

  • powerhouse of the cell
  • where cellular respiration takes place
  • supplies energy for the cell (ATP)
A

mitochondria

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8
Q

What is the role of the microfilaments and intermediate filaments in a cell?

A
  • provide scaffolding for the cell
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9
Q

What is the role of the microtubules of a cell?

A
  • they participate in the formation of the spindle during cell division (mitosis)
  • regulating cell growth and movement as well as key signaling events, which modulate fundamental cellular processes
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10
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

- contains genetic material of cell

A

nucleus

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11
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

  • where RNA is formed
  • primary function is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome biogenesis
A

nucleolus

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12
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

  • site where protein synthesis and protein metabolism will take place
  • studded with ribosomes
A

rough endoplasmic reticulum

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13
Q

Which cell structure is the following?

- synthesis and storage of lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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14
Q

Which cell structure is being described?

- contains enzymes, breaks down waste products of the cell

A

lysosome

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15
Q

What is being described?
- deoxyribonucleic acid

  • contains genetic
    information that codes for living organisms
  • nucleobases; cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine
  • 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans
A

DNA

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16
Q

Tissue homeostasis
Which type of cells are being described?
- cells that are constantly renewing eg. stratified squamous epithelium of skin

A

labile cells

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17
Q

Tissue homeostasis
Which type of cells are being described?
- usually quiescent (in a state or period of inactivity or dormancy) but can be stimulated to divide eg. hepatocytes

A

stable cells

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18
Q

Tissue homeostasis
Which type of cells are being described?
- incapable of regeneration in post-natal life eg. neurons, cardiac muscle

A

permanent cells

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19
Q

Cell growth

What is the term used for repeated cell division?

A

cell proliferation

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20
Q

Cell growth

What is the term used for increase in the the number of cells?

A

hyperplasia

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21
Q

Cell growth

What is the term used for an increase in cell size?

A

hypertrophy

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22
Q

Which phase of the cell cycle is being described?

  • part of interphase
  • preparation of cell for division
  • cell grows larger
  • number of organelles increases
  • cells may exit G1 phase to enter G0 phase where cells are inactive or dormant outside of the cell cycle
A

G1 phase

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23
Q

Which phase of the cell cycle is being described?

  • synthesis phase
  • DNA replication
  • part of interphase
  • cell synthesises complete copy of DNA in nucleus
A

S phase

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24
Q

Which phase of the cell cycle is being described?

  • part of interphase
  • growth and preparation for division
  • cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles
  • recognises contents in preparation for mitosis
A

G2 phase

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25
Q

Which phase of the cell cycle is being described?

  • prophase
  • prometaphase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
  • cytokinesis
A

M phase

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26
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • first stage
  • chromosomes duplicate, and the copies remain attached to each other
A

interphase

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27
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • second stage
  • in the nucleus, chromosomes condense and become visible. In the cytoplasm, the spindle forms
A

prophase

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28
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • third stage
  • the nuclear membrane breaks apart, and the spindle starts to interact with the chromosomes
A

prometaphase

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29
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • fourth stage
  • the copied chromosomes align in the middle of the spindle
A

metaphase

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30
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • fifth stage
  • chromosomes separate into two genetically identical groups and move to opposite ends of the spindle
A

anaphase

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31
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • sixth stage
  • nuclear membranes form around each of the two sets of chromosomes, the chromosomes begin to spread out, and the spindle begins to break down
A

telophase

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32
Q

Which stage of the mitotic phase is being described?

  • final stage
  • the cell splits into two daughter cells each with the same number of chromosomes
A

cytokinesis

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33
Q

Cell injury
What is being described?
- pathological (or excess physiological) stressors force cell into new steady state

A

cell adaptation

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34
Q

Cell injury
What is being described?
- level of stress on cell exceeds adaptive capacity and cell dies

A

cell injury

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35
Q

What are 10 causes of cell injury?

A
  1. hypoxia/ischaemia
  2. free radicals
  3. chemical
  4. ionising radiation
  5. mechanical trauma
  6. ageing
  7. infection
  8. genetic abnormality
  9. nutritional imbalance
  10. thermal
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36
Q

List the 4 biochemical mechanisms involved in cell injury?

A
  • loss of energy (ATP/O2 depletion)
  • oxygen and O2-derived free radicals
  • loss of calcium homeostasis
  • defects in plasma membrane
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37
Q

Which type of cell injury mechanism is being described?

  • mitochondria susceptible to injury from oxidants, free radicals, cations and weak acids
  • mitochondrial damage leads to: leakage of pro-apoptotic proteins
  • decreased ATP
A

loss of energy

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38
Q

What are 4 implications of decreased ATP?

A
  • cellular swelling
  • lactic acid accumulation - decreased pH
  • disrupted protein synthesis
  • depletion of glycogen (altered metabolism)
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39
Q

Which type of cell injury mechanism is being described?
- cellular injury caused by; lipid pre oxidation causing membranous damage, protein cross-linking and fragmentation, reacts with thymine causing DNA damage/mutations

A

free radicals

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40
Q

Which type of cell injury mechanism is being described?
Increase in cytosolic Ca2+:
- Ca2+ is pro-apoptotic
therefore - ischaemia, toxins which will break down phospholipids and low ATP

A

loss of calcium homeostasis

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41
Q

What are the two types of cell injury?

A

reversible and irreversible

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42
Q

Describes the 6 changes in cell morphology following reversible injury?

A
  • cell swelling
  • fat accumulation
  • cell membrane alterations
  • mitochondrial swelling
  • RER swelling
  • ribosomal detachment
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43
Q

Describes the 5 changes in cell morphology following irreversible injury?

A
  • loss of RNA
  • chromatin clumping
  • membrane disruption
  • fragmentation
  • nuclear changes
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44
Q

What is the definition of apoptosis?

A

programmed cell death

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45
Q

What is the definition of necrosis?

A

pathological early cell death in living tissue

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46
Q

What are 4 physiological and pathological causations of cell apoptosis?

A
  • embryonic development
  • hormone dependent involution of organs
  • cell death in tumours
  • cell injury in viral disease
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47
Q

What are 3 triggers of apoptosis?

A
  • death promoting signal
  • withdrawal of stimulatory signals
  • DNA damage
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48
Q

What are the 5 distinctive morphological patterns of necrosis? (CCLFG)

A
  • coagulative
  • liquefactive
  • gangrenous
  • caseous
  • fat
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49
Q

What are the 2 types of gangrenous necrosis?

A
  • dry gangrene

- wet gangrene

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50
Q

Which type of gangrenous necrosis is being described?

  • no bacterial superinfection
  • mainly coagulative necrosis
A

dry gangrene

51
Q

Which type of gangrenous necrosis is being described?

  • bacterial superinfection
  • mainly liquefactive necrosis
A

wet gangrene

52
Q

What are 4 differences between necrosis and apoptosis?

A

necrosis

  • cellular swelling
  • membranes are broken
  • ATP is depleted
  • whole areas of tissue are affected

apoptosis

  • cellular condensation
  • membranes remain intact
  • requires ATP
  • individual cells appear affected
53
Q

What are the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation?

A
  1. pain
  2. heat
  3. redness
  4. swelling
  5. loss of function
54
Q

What are the 3 stages of acute inflammation? (VIM)

A
  • vasodilation
  • increased vascular permeability
  • migration of leukocytes
55
Q

What are the 4 inflammatory mediators in acute inflammation?

A
  • prostaglandins
  • leukotrienes
  • histamine
  • serotonin
56
Q

What are the two main cell types that are present in inflammation?

A

neutrophils and macrophages

57
Q

What are the 5 cellular events in acute inflammation? (MADCP)

A
  1. margination
  2. adhesion
  3. diapedesis
  4. chemotaxis
  5. phagocytosis
58
Q

Which cellular event is being described in acute inflammation?
- leukocytes move to lie against endothelium as blood flow slows

A
  1. margination
59
Q

Which cellular event in acute inflammation is being described?
- adhesion molecules (integrins) on leukocytes bind to corresponding molecules (ICAM-1 & ICAM-2) on endothelium

A
  1. adhesion
60
Q

Which cellular event in acute inflammation is being described?
- adherent leukocytes pass through endothelium into extravascular space

A
  1. diapedesis
61
Q

Which cellular event in acute inflammation is being described?
- migrated leukocytes move along gradient of chemotactic factors

A
  1. chemotaxis
62
Q

Which cellular event in acute inflammation is being described?
- opsonised bacteria are engulfed by neutrophils and macrophages to create phagosome. Phagosome fuses with lysosome and engulfed particles are ingested

A
  1. phagocytosis
63
Q

Which one of the two cellular components of acute inflammation is being described?

  • predominant leukocyte in first 24 hours
  • predominant cells in pus
A

neutrophils

64
Q

Which one of the two cellular components of acute inflammation is being described?

  • predominant leukocyte after 48 hours
  • continue phagocytosis
  • secrete cytokines responsible for extracellular matrix production
A

macrophages

65
Q

What are the 4 plasma chemical mediators in acute inflammation?

A
  • complement system
  • kinin system
  • coagulation system
  • fibrinolytic system
66
Q

What are the 5 cellular chemical mediators in acute inflammation?

A
  • vasoactive amines
  • lysosomal enzymes
  • arachidonic acid derivatives
  • cytokines
  • free radicals
67
Q

What are the 4 outcomes of acute Inflammation? (RASC)

A
  1. resolution
  2. abscess & pus formation
  3. scarring & fibrosis
  4. chronic inflammation
68
Q

What are the 3 features of chronic inflammation?

A
  1. infiltration of tissues with mononuclear inflammatory cells
  2. ongoing tissue destruction
  3. evidence of healing
69
Q

Which example of chronic inflammation is being described?

  • persistence of injurious agent
  • failure to drain pus/foreign material
  • inadequate blood supply
  • inadequate drainage of endocrine gland
A

non-specific chronic inflammation

70
Q

Which example of chronic inflammation is being described?

  • characterised by production of antibodies against self
  • chronic tissue damage
  • necrosis
  • antibody complexes
A

autoimmune chronic inflammation

71
Q

Which example of chronic inflammation is being described?

  • presence of granulomas (organised collection of macrophages)
  • offending substance ‘walled off’ in granulomas
  • pus-filled cavities common
A

granulomatous

72
Q

What are 3 examples of chronic inflammation?

A
  • non specific
  • autoimmune
  • granulomatous
73
Q

What are the predominant cells in common bacteria?

A

neutrophils

74
Q

What are the predominant cells in viral infections and autoimmune diseases?

A

lymphocytes

75
Q

What are the predominant cells in spirochaetal disease eg. syphilis?

A

plasma cells

76
Q

What are the predominant cells in typhoid fever, TB and fungal infections?

A

macrophages

77
Q

What are the predominant cells in allergic reactions, parasites and gut inflammation?

A

eosinophils

78
Q

What are 5 macroscopic features of chronic inflammation?

A
  1. chronic uler
  2. chronic abscess
  3. thickening of hollow viscous wall
  4. granuloma
  5. fibrosis
79
Q

What are the microscopic features of chronic inflammation?

A

positive: formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis), laying down new collagen, release of cytokines (help with immune response)
negative: release toxins

80
Q

What does SIRS stand for?

A

systemic inflammatory response syndrome

81
Q

What are the 4 signs of SIRS?

A
  1. tachycardia - increased heart rate 90 beats per min
  2. resp rate above 20 breaths per min
  3. high temp above 38 degrees or below 36 degrees in elderly patients
  4. increased levels of white blood cells
82
Q

What are the 3 stages of acute inflammation? (VIL)

A
  1. vasodilation
  2. increased vascular permeability
  3. leukocyte migration
83
Q

What are the 3 layers of the skin?

A
  1. epidermis - protection
  2. dermis - thermal regulation
  3. hypodermis
84
Q

What are the 2 types of wounds?

A

open and closed

85
Q

What type of wounds are the following?

  • incision
  • laceration
  • abrasion
  • puncture
  • penetration
A

open wounds

86
Q

What type of wounds are the following?

  • contusion (bruising)
  • haematoma (swelling/collection of blood)
A

closed wounds

87
Q

What are the 4 types of surgical wounds?

A
  1. clean
  2. clean-contaminated
  3. contaminated
  4. dirty
88
Q

Which type of surgical wound is being described?

  • an incision in which no Inflammation is encountered in a surgical procedure
  • no break in sterile technique, and during which the respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts are not entered
  • example is excision of a mole from skin
A

clean surgical wound

89
Q

Which type of surgical wound is being described?

  • an incision through which the respiratory, gastrointestinal or genitourinary tract is entered under controlled conditions
  • contamination encountered
  • example is elective procedure of bowel (planned)
A

clean-contamined surgical wound

90
Q

Which type of surgical wound is being described?

  • an incision undertaken during an operation in which there is a major break in sterile technique or gross spillage from the gastrointestinal tract
  • an incision in which acute, non-purulent (no pus) inflammation is encountered
  • example is gall bladder removal (bile spillage)
A

contaminated surgical wound

91
Q

Which type of surgical wound is being described?

  • an incision undertaken during an operation in which the viscera are perforated or when acute inflammation with pus is encountered during the operation
  • examples are; contamination of open fracture (trauma), bowel perforation during laparoscopy (faecal contamination)
A

dirty surgical wound

92
Q

What are the 4 types of burns?

A
  • superficial (first degree)
  • partial thickness (second degree)
  • full thickness (third degree)
  • fourth degree
93
Q

What are the 3 types of wound repair? (intention)?

A
  1. primary
  2. secondary
  3. tertiary
94
Q

Which type of wound repair is being described?

- clean edges are brought together without tension

A

primary

95
Q

Which type of wound repair is being described?

- healing by granulation from base of wound. edges are not re-approximated

A

secondary

96
Q

Which type of wound repair is being described?

- delayed primary closure for dirty wounds

A

tertiary

97
Q

What are the 4 phases of wound healing?

A
  1. haemostasis
  2. inflammation
  3. proliferation
  4. maturation and remodelling
98
Q

Which phase of wound healing is being described?
Following tissue injury…
- immediate vasoconstriction to prevent blood loss
- activated platelets aggregate at site of endothelial injury
- initiation of clotting cascade
- fibrin matrix stabilises wound by forming a ‘mesh’
- 0-15 minutes

A

haemostasis

99
Q

Which phase of wound healing is being described?

  • vasodilation and increased vascular permeability
  • migration of neutrophils and macrophages
  • phagocytosis of debris
  • influx of fibroblasts (important in next phase)
  • release of cytokines & platelet-derived growth factors
  • hours to days

Fibroblasts: produce extracellular matrix and collagen

  • ECM; nutrients, moist environment for cells move on
  • collagen; provide strength to skin
A

inflammation

100
Q

Which phase of wound healing is being described?

  • formation of granulation tissue, angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), epithelialisation and wound contraction
  • cells recruited during inflammatory phase are proliferated due to released growth factors
  • epithelial cells at edge of wound proliferate & migrate across defect
  • fibroblasts synthesise ECM and collagen (type III)
  • endothelial cells - development of new blood vessels
  • myofibroblasts similar to smooth muscle cells, act to contract the wound
A

proliferation

101
Q

Which 4 types of cells are involved in proliferation?

A
  • epithelial
  • fibroblasts
  • endothelial
  • myofibroblasts
102
Q

Which phase of wound healing is being described?

  • stage lasts for months, takes longer where there is a lot of movement
  • scar becomes less vascular
  • tensile strength increases as collagen is modified
  • type III collagen replaced by type I collagen, multiple molecules orientate to form ‘fibril’, cross-linkage of fibrils aided by vitamin c
A

remodelling

103
Q

How long does it take for a wound to be waterproof?

A

48 hours

104
Q

How long does it take for full maturation of a wound?

A

up to 12-18 months

105
Q

What are the 2 types of abnormal healing?

A
  • hypertrophic scar

- keloid scar

106
Q

Which type of abnormal healing is being described?

  • excessive amounts of collagen laid down
  • scar does not extend beyond original wound edges
  • tension on wound increases likelihood; wound not brought together properly, should have sutured
A

hypertrophic scar

107
Q

Which type of abnormal healing is being described?

  • overgrowth of granulation tissue
  • scar extends beyond edges of original wound
  • more common in afro-caribbean ethnicities
  • removal for aesthetics may result in regrowth
  • minimal tension, good surgical technique, pressure dressing may reduce granulation tissue
A

keloid scar

108
Q

What are the following examples of?

  • medical optimisation; antibiotics, oxygen, tetanus, control of blood sugar
  • wound debridement; irrigation, surgical, enzymatic, biological (maggots)
  • topical therapy; antiseptics, antimicrobials
  • wound dressing; films, foams, alginates, hydrocolloids
  • wound packing; deep wounds, prevents abscess formation
  • wound closure; primary, topic negative pressure
  • wound coverage; skin grafts, synthetic grafts, flaps
  • adjunctive therapy; surgical drains, hyperbaric oxygen
A

wound management methods

109
Q

What type of cells are the following?

  • osteogenic cell > stem cell
  • osteoblast cell > matrix synthesising cell responsible for bone growth
  • osteocyte cell > mature bone cell that maintains the bone matrix
  • osteoclast > bone-resorbing cell
A

bone cells

110
Q

What are 5 important factors when considering severity of bone fractures?

A
  • open vs closed wound
  • mechanism of injury
  • pre-morbid bone quality
  • anatomical location
  • age of patient
111
Q

What are the 2 types of fracture healing?

A

primary and secondary

112
Q

Which type of fracture healing is being described?

  • bring two ends fracture together (surgeons)
  • requires stability of fracture
  • Haversian remodelling
A

primary healing

113
Q

Which type of fracture healing is being described?

  • does not require rigid fixation (natural way)
  • responses from periosteum & surrounding soft tissue
A

secondary healing

114
Q

What are the 4 phases of fracture healing?

A
  1. haematoma formation
  2. soft callus formation
  3. hard callus formation
  4. bone remodelling
115
Q

Which phase of fracture healing is being described?

  • rupture of blood vessels in medullary cavity
  • blood fills gap and spills into surrounding tissues forming a haematoma
  • formation of fibrin mesh and seals off fracture site
  • influx of inflammatory cells
  • cytokines activate osteoprogenitor cells to fibroblasts and chondroblasts
A

haematoma

116
Q

Which phase of fracture healing is being described?

  • by end of 1st-2nd week organised haematoma replaced by soft callus
  • granulation tissue provides matrix for woven bone to be deposited by osteoblasts
  • still damageable by shear forces
  • axial traction & pressure promote matrix formation
A

soft callus formation

117
Q

Which phase of fracture healing is being described?

  • organised parallel to axis of bone
  • mineralisation of soft callus
  • fracture strength increases
  • allows weight bearing
  • 6 weeks healing time
A

hard callus formation

118
Q

Which phase of fracture healing is being described?

  • occurs over months and years
  • initial callus is replaced with lamellar bone through Haversian remodelling
  • internal architecture dependent on Wolff’s law
A

bone remodelling

119
Q

What is being described?
Mechanotransduction
- osteocytes send signals via molecules or direct contact when load sensed
- osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts or osteoclasts dependent on load conditions

A

Wolff’s law

120
Q

What type of cell is being described?

- stem cells located in the bone that play a prodigal role in bone repair and growth

A

osteoprogenitor cell

121
Q

What are the 4 principles of fracture management?

A
  1. fracture reduction (to restore anatomical relationships)
  2. fracture fixation (providing stability)
  3. preservation of blood supply (to the soft tissue and bone)
  4. early and safe mobilisation
122
Q

What are the two types of impairment of wound healing?

A

local and systemic

123
Q

What are the following examples, of which type of impairment of wound healing?

  • oxygenation
  • infection
  • foreign body
  • venous sufficiency
A

local impairment of wound healing

124
Q

What are the following examples, of which type of impairment of wound healing?

  • age
  • sex hormones (females heal better than males)
  • stress
  • ischaemia (restricted blood flow)
  • disease (jaundice, diabetes etc)
  • medications
  • nutrition
  • smoking
  • obesity
  • immunocompromised conditions
A

systemic impairment of wound healing

DG1006 - HHD1&ANATOMY (12 decks)

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