Pathology Of Immune System (MODULE 8A & 8B) Flashcards

Question

What are common treatments for type I hypersensitivity symptoms?

Answer 1

• Antihistamines —Block the effects of histamine • Corticosteroids —Decrease inflammatory

Answer 2

• Massive and intense systemic type 1 hypersensitivity reaction • Causes immediate and severe reactions • Mast cell mediator release and an increased intensity of reactions Individuals go into Anaphylactic Shock —Airways spasm and fill with mucus —Hives, itchiness, swelling of skin —Abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting Treatment • Epinephrine pen

Answer 3

AKA: Antibody-Mediated (Type II) Hypersensitivity • AKA: Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity — Due to the mediated destruction of cells • IgG antibodies directed against target antigens on the surface of cells or other tissue components or exogenous molecules —Basically- our own antibodies bind to our own cells’ antigens eliciting various reactions that cause disease, damage, and destruction IgG antibodies bind to healthy cells’ antigens or extrinsic antigens = this is the key with type II hypersensitivity reactions. Antibodies bind directly to a healthy cell which then causes complications. • Intrinsic antigen —Cell normally makes these antigens This is the key with Type II • Extrinsic (exogenous) antigen Hypersensitivity reactions. Antibodies bind directly to a —A drug antigen healthy cell which then causes

Answer 4

• 1. Activation of the complement system • 2. Interference with normal cellular functions

Answer 5

• 1. Opsonization and phagocytosis (cytotoxic) • 2. Complement system activation (cytotoxic) • 3. Antibody Dependent Cell Mediated Cytotoxicity (cytotoxic) • 4. Antibody Mediated Cellular Dysfunction (non-cytotoxic)

Answer 6

• Autoimmune hemolytic anemia • Myasthenia gravis • Graves disease • Pernicious anemia • Vasculitis • Acute rheumatic fever • Goodpasture syndrome: Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (kidney) with pulmonary hemorrhage; Anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody disease; Glomerulonephritis - pulmonary hemorrhage

Answer 7

• AKA: Immune Complex–Mediated Diseases • Antigen-antibody complexes (called immune complexes) that are formed in the circulation may deposit in blood vessels —Leading to complement system activation and acute inflammation —Causes tissue damage • Only involves antibodies bound to soluble antigens —Not attached to a cell • Type II Hypersensitivity: Antibodies target antigens bound on cell surfaces in the blood

Answer 8

F • Antigens that form these immune complexes may be: Exogenous —Foreign protein that is injected or produced by an infectious microbe • Endogenous — Individual produces antibodies against self antigens (autoimmunity)

Answer 9

• 1. Formation of antigen • Antibody complexes in circulation; Introduction of a protein antigen triggers an immune response that results in the formation of antibodies; Antibodies are secreted into the blood and react with the antigen still present in the blood • Antibody-Antigen complexes form (immune complexes) • 2. Deposition of these immune complexes in tissues • Blood vessels primarily Circulating antigen-antibody complexes are deposited in various tissues • Site where these immune complexes are deposited: • Organs where blood is filtered at high pressure to form other fluids • Urine and synovial fluid for example • Like the glomeruli and joints • 3. Inflammatory reaction in various sites • Complement system Immune complexes deposited in tissues initiate acute inflammatory reactions via complement system • Tissue damage is similar no matter where complexes are deposited • Depending on the location, the name is different: • Vasculitis if it occurs in blood vessels • Glomerulonephritis if it occurs in renal glomeruli • Arthritis if it occurs in the joints

Answer 10

• 1. Formation of antigen • Antibody complexes in circulation; Introduction of a protein antigen triggers an immune response that results in the formation of antibodies; Antibodies are secreted into the blood and react with the antigen still present in the blood • Antibody-Antigen complexes form (immune complexes) • 2. Deposition of these immune complexes in tissues • Blood vessels primarily Circulating antigen-antibody complexes are deposited in various tissues • Site where these immune complexes are deposited: • Organs where blood is filtered at high pressure to form other fluids • Urine and synovial fluid for example • Like the glomeruli and joints • 3. Inflammatory reaction in various sites • Complement system Immune complexes deposited in tissues initiate acute inflammatory reactions via complement system • Tissue damage is similar no matter where complexes are deposited • Depending on the location, the name is different: • Vasculitis if it occurs in blood vessels • Glomerulonephritis if it occurs in renal glomeruli • Arthritis if it occurs in the joints

Answer 11

• Systemic lupus erythematosus • Reactive arthritis • Arthus reaction • Nephritis (glomerulonephritis) • Vasculitis

Answer 12

• AKA: T cell-mediated (type IV) hypersensitivity • AKA: Delayed Type Hypersensitivity • It is NOT antibody mediated but CELLULAR mediated reactions • Involves the actions of two different types of T lymphocytes • Remember where lymphocytes were also associated? • Each type has its own outcomes and physiological changes

Answer 13

• 1. Cytokine-Mediated Inflammation • Cytokines are produced mainly by CD4+ T cells • 2. Direct Cell Cytotoxicity • Mediated by CD8+ T cells CD 4+ Cells • AKA: Helper T Cells • Release cytokines CD8+ Cells • AKA: Killer T Cells and Cytotoxic T Cells • Kill specific targets (assassins)

Answer 14

C No antibodies with type IV

Answer 15

• 1. Hypersensitivity • 2. Autoimmune • 3. Immunodeficiency

Answer 16

Normally, immune system should react and protect the organism • With immune system diseases- this protection is lost or directs immunity reactions against itself or overreacts • Causes damage to the host Common Autoimmune Diseases • Multiple sclerosis, Myasthenia gravis, Pernicious anemia, Reactive arthritis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren syndrome, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Type I diabetes, Systemic Sclerosis

Answer 17

Can be directed against one particular organ or cell type • Results in localized tissue damage ‘Can also be directed toward multisystem organ systems • Characterized by lesions in many organs • Primarily affect the connective tissues and blood vessels of involved organs

Answer 18

1. Central Tolerance • Immature self-reactive T and B lymphocyte clones that recognize self antigens during their maturation are killed • Referred to as: Negative Selection or Clonal deletion 2. Peripheral Tolerance • Some lymphocytes (B and T) with autoantigens reactions sometimes escape into the blood • Several mechanisms in the peripheral tissues that kill autoreactive B and T cells

Answer 19

• 1. Inherited Susceptibility Genes • Influence lymphocyte tolerance • 2. Environmental Factors • Infections or tissue injury that alter the display of self antigens • Activate APCs and lymphocytes in the tissues

Answer 20

Both occur with Central tolerance Immature self-reactive T and B lymphocyte clones that recognize self antigens during their maturation are killed * negative selection or clinical deletion is a protective mechanism in the immune system to ensure that I cells do not attach the body;s own tissues, thus preventing autoimmune diseases

Answer 21

B Occurs with central tolerance

Answer 22

Autoimmune disease involving multiple organs • Characterized by a vast array of autoantibodies, particularly antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) • Injury is caused mainly by deposition of immune complexes and binding of antibodies to various cells and tissues- like blood vessels It is an unpredictable, remitting and relapsing disease of acute or insidious onset that may involve virtually any organ in the body • Primarily affects the skin, kidneys, serosal membranes, joints, and heart • Makes Dx difficult can it influence so many organs/tissues • Hallmark of SLE is the production of autoantibodies • Especially anti-nuclear antibodies (ANAs) • To a host of other autoantibodies- blood cells, organelles, plasma membrane

Answer 23

ANAs Can Be Grouped Into Four Categories (1) Antibodies to DNA (2) Antibodies to histones (3) Antibodies to nonhistone proteins bound to RNA (4) Antibodies to nuclear antigen Antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) are antibodies that target the components inside the nucleus of cells. The presence of ANAs in the blood can indicate autoimmune diseases, particularly conditions like lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and scleroderma.

Answer 24

Risk Factors • Genetic Factors • Environmental Factors • UV radiation, smoking, sex hormones • Immunological Ab Epidemiology • 9/10 diagnosed cases are women • B/w ages of 15-45 years of age • Systemic lupus is about 70% of the lupus diagnoses • Lupus 2-3x times more prevalent in women of color • African American women affects roughly 1 in 245 • 1/3 suffer from multiple autoimmune conditions • Estimated about 1.5 million individuals are diagnosed with lupus Diagnosis • Diagnosis is challenging due to variability of symptoms and overlapping of other autoimmune disorders Pathogenesis • Autoantibodies are formed *Most damage is formed by hypersensitivity type III reactions • Depending on the tissue/organ these antigen-antibody complexes are deposited – tissue/organ destruction will vary Clinical Manifestations (top 3 most common) —Kidneys (common) • Renal failure is the most common cause of death with lupus • Glomerulonephritis —Skin (common) • Involvement within majority of patients • Erythematous- butterfly pattern —Blood vessels (common) • Acute necrotizing vasculitis —CNS (common) • Focal neurological deficits • Due to ischemia

Answer 25

Clinical Manifestations (top 3 most common) —Kidneys (common) • Renal failure is the most common cause of death with lupus • Glomerulonephritis —Skin (common) • Involvement within majority of patients • Erythematous- butterfly pattern —Blood vessels (common) • Acute necrotizing vasculitis —CNS (common) • Focal neurological deficits • Due to ischemia

Answer 26

T (1) Antibodies to DNA (2) Antibodies to histones (3) Antibodies to nonhistone proteins bound to RNA (4) Antibodies to nuclear antigen

Answer 27

Immune cells attack and destroy the lacrimal and salivary glands • Produce tears and saliva Symptoms: • Dry eyes: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca • Dry mouth: Xerostomia Caused by destruction of the lacrimal and salivary glands • Primarily CD4+ Helper T cells and B lymphocytes

Answer 28

Group of rare diseases that affect the skin and connective tissues • Causes EXCESSIVE FIBROSIS in tissues leading to hardening and tightening of the skin • Skin is the primary area affected —GI tract, lungs, kidneys, heart, skeletal muscle can be affected —Other organs lead to morbidity and mortality • Virtually all patients have ANAs that react with a variety of nuclear antigens Epidemiology • Affects women 3x more than men • Around 50-60 years of age • Diffuse Scleroderma • Widespread skin involvement and early viscera involvement • Limited Scleroderma • Mild skin involvement-fingers and face • Involvement of viscera is later and slower to progress • Also called CREST syndrome

Answer 29

Corticosteroid Treatment (Steroids) are POWERFUL anti-inflammatory medications • Medications that closely resemble hormone cortisol • Adrenal Gland • Adrenal Cortex • Glucocorticoids: Cortisol • Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone • Androgens: DHEA, testosterone • Adrenal Medulla • Catecholamines: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine **Corticosteroid Treatment (Steroids)- Cortisol Hormone • Powerful anti-inflammatory • Suppresses immune system • Increases blood sugar levels (gluconeogenesis) • Function with lipid, protein, carbohydrate metabolism • Decreases bone formation • Increases blood pressure • Affects sleep-wake cycle

Answer 30

ID - Simple means the immune system is impacted by a change in its function that leads to an inability to function properly and is suspectable to disease and infection When this happens we refer to the patient as immunocompromised

Answer 31

• 1. Primary (congenital) immunodeficiencies: Genetic defects that affect the innate or adaptive immunity • Commonly detected in infancy • Between 6 months and 2 years of age • A family of rare genetically distinct syndromes **All have impaired development of mature T lymphocytes and/or B lymphocytes • All have defects in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity — O-Linked SCID: • Accounts for 50% to 60% of cases of SCID • X-linked so is will it be more common in females or males? Failure of T-cell and B-cell maturation • 2. Secondary (acquired) immunodeficiencies AKA: Acquired Immunodeficiencies • Much more common than primary immunodeficiencies!!! *Seen In Individuals With • Cancer • Diabetes and other metabolic diseases • Malnutrition • Chronic infection • Individuals receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy for cancer, • Individuals taking immunosuppressive drugs to prevent graft rejection or to treat autoimmune diseases

Answer 32

1. Defective Lymphocyte Maturation • When the bone marrow is damaged by radiation or chemotherapy or involved by tumors, such as leukemias 2. Inadequate Ig Synthesis • As in malnutrition 3. Leukocyte Depletion and Dysfunction • From drugs or severe infections

Answer 33

AKA: 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome • DiGeorge syndrome is a congenital defect in thymic development resulting in deficient T-cell maturation • Leads to an immunodeficiency • Caused when a small part of chromosome 22 is missing • T cells are absent in the lymph nodes, spleen, and peripheral blood • Infants diagnosed with this are extremely vulnerable to viral, fungal, and protozoal infections Leads to other complications: • Heart defects •Hypoparathyroidism • Cleft palate and other facial features • Autoimmune disorders

Answer 34

• AKA: Goodpasture disease; Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis with pulmonary hemorrhage; Anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody disease; Glomerulonephritis - pulmonary hemorrhage • Autoimmune disease that affects the lungs and kidneys **TYPE II HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION • Characterized By • 1. Pulmonary alveolar hemorrhage • 2. Glomerulonephritis • Most often occurs in people ages 20 to 30 or older than age 60

Answer 35

• Hypersensitivity reaction that occurs several hours to days following the intradermal injection of a vaccine into an animal and is marked by the formation of antigen-antibody complexes accompanied by localized inflammation, pain, redness, and sometimes tissue destruction • Merriam Webster Dictionary • The Arthus reaction is a rare adverse reaction that usually occurs after vaccination with large and more severe local reactions, belonging to type III hypersensitivity reaction. This reaction is characterized by pain, swelling, induration (Tissue that becomes firm) and edema, even accompanied by severe necrosis or ulceration at the injection sites •

Answer 36

• Condition associated with a number of disorders in which extracellular deposits of fibrillar proteins are responsible for tissue damage and functional compromise • Basically- amyloid fibrils (abnormal proteins) build up in the ECM within your organs/tissues and interfere with their normal function • AL (primary) amyloidosis is associated with excessive production of abnormal proteins associated with antibodies Normally… • Intracellular misfolded proteins are degraded in proteasomes • Extracellular protein aggregates are taken up and degraded by macrophages • In amyloidosis, these quality control mechanisms fail and fibrillar proteins (amyloid fibrils) accumulate outside of cells • Interfere with function • Many different types and forms of this condition • The pattern of organ involvement in different forms of amyloidosis is variable, but commonly: • Kidney • Spleen • Liver • Heart • Integument

Answer 37

F Antigen-antibody complexes are deposited in tissues, causing activation of complement, which attracts neutrophils to the site

Answer 38

• -ology = study of • -oma = suffix meaning tumors and abnormal growth • -plasia = formation of cells • Neo- = new • Carcin/o = cancer; cancerous • Aden/o = gland • Onc/o = tumor • Sarc/o = connective tissue • Lymph/o = lymph

Answer 39

Initiation/formation of cancer

Answer 40

Formation of new, abnormal growth that is not under physiological control • Often referred to as a tumor

Answer 41

B- Tumor, or growth that is not cancerous and does not spread to other parts of the body nor does it invade nearby tissue M - Tumor, or growth that is cancerous and spreads to other parts of the body and invades nearby tissues

Answer 42

The development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer

Answer 43

Cancer in which abnormal cells have not spread beyond where they first formed Good b/c its stayed and not spread (though it looks like malignant)

Answer 44

Study and treatment of cancer; one who specializes in the study and treatment of cancer

Answer 45

Malignant cancer that originates from epithelial tissue and cells that line glands

Answer 46

Malignant cancer that originates in the lymph tissue or blood cells

Answer 47

Malignant cancer that originates in connective tissue

Answer 48

- Partial remission means tests demonstrate tumor has shrunk (1/2 size) and isn’t growing • Complete remission means diagnostic tests do not demonstrate any cancer cells within your body

Answer 49

When cell changes from one type to another • Typically, go from immature (unspecialized) cells to mature cells (specialized) with individual characteristics that have specific form and function

Answer 50

Loss of the mature or specialized features of a cell or tissue, as in malignant tumors

Answer 51

Group of genes that slow down cell division, repair DNA, and initiate apoptosis p53 and Rb

Answer 52

Group of genes that produce proteins that regulate cell growth and division, differentiation RAS —> always turned on and uncontrolled

Answer 53

Mutated or over expressed proto-oncogenes

Answer 54

Adenocarcinomas (form from glands: Brest, prostate, ovary, colon, pancreas) Squamous cell carcinoma (form epithelial tissue)

Answer 55

Shape Function The change in DNA can affect the mRNA sequence which then results in change in the AA and different shape of protein that is dysfucntional (loses function)

Answer 56

• Mutations caused by exogenous and endogenous stimuli • Epigenetic changes- nongenetic influences on gene expression

Answer 57

MUST KNOW! • Weight loss without lifestyle changes • Pain that doesn’t resolve with OTC (over the counter medication) • Pain at night (less O2 at night; Cells are still running quickly) • Fatigue • Changes in other physiological processes (GI, bowel movements, urination) — Depend on organ/area involved

Answer 58

DNA mutations = Mutations can lead to altered or abnormal expression of specific genes that regulate fundamental cellular processes (cell cycle and cell growth) Epigenetic changes = Turn a gene on or block it; Involves changes in gene activity that don’t alter the DNA sequence but can turn genes on or off leading to abnormal cell growth and development of tumors.

Answer 59

F Normal cell function does require an outside signal or factor to initiate cell growth and predication, along with internal factors as well.

Answer 60

1. Adenocarcinomas • Form from glands (breast, prostate, ovary, colon, pancreas) 2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma • Form epithelial tissue

Answer 61

• Refer to cancers that originate from lymph tissue or blood cells * Lymphoma Cancers (lymph tissue) • Hodgkin Lymphoma • Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma * Leukemia Cancers (blood cells) • Acute myeloid (or myelogenous) leukemia (AML) • Chronic myeloid (or myelogenous) leukemia (CML) • Acute lymphocytic (or lymphoblastic) leukemia (ALL) • Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)

Answer 62

— Refer to cancers that originate from connective tissue • Osteosarcoma (bone) • Chondrosarcoma (cartilage) • Synovial cell sarcoma (joint) • Liposarcoma (fat) • Angiosarcoma (blood vessel) • Rhabdomyosarcoma (skeletal muscle)

Answer 63

Cancer • A classification of malignant tumors that are caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body that have the potential to invade or spread to other areas of the body Vital differences between benign and malignant • Benign (not cancer) • Malignant (cancer)

Answer 64

• 1. Differentiation and anaplasia • 2. Rate of growth • 3. Local invasion • 4. Metastasis

Answer 65

Parenchyma - Functional tissue of an organ as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue Stroma - Supportive tissue of an organ consisting of connective tissues and blood vessels

Answer 66

1. Pleomorphism • Variation in size and shape 2. Nuclei are extremely hyperchromatic (dark-staining), large, variable and bizarre in size and shape 3. Fail to develop recognizable patterns of orientation to one another *The more rapidly growing and the more anaplastic a tumor, the less likely it is to have specialized functional activity

Answer 67

D- Alteration in size, shape, and organization of adult cells A - Loss of differentiation of cells and of their orientation to one another • An extremely advance form of dysplasia

Answer 68

F Locally invasive, infiltrating surrounding tissue; sometimes may be misleadingly cohesive and expansile

Answer 69

Benign Malignant

Answer 70

The study (scientific, systematic, and data-driven) of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (neighborhood, school, city, state, country, global). • Contributes to the knowledge about the origin of cancer

Answer 71

Lifelong cumulative exposure to estrogen stimulation, particularly if unopposed by progesterone, increases the risk of cancers of the breast and endometrium, tissues that are responsive to these hormones

Answer 72

Any substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue • Don’t freak out- but there are carcinogens all around you

Answer 73

• 1. Autosomal Dominant Cancer • Inheritance of a single mutant gene greatly increases the risk of developing a tumor • 2. Autosomal Recessive Syndromes of Defective DNA Repair • Predisposition to these tumors shows an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance • 3. Familial Cancers of Uncertain Inheritance • Features that characterize familial cancers include early age at onset, tumors arising in two or more close relatives of the index case, and sometimes multiple or bilateral tumors

Answer 74

preneoplastic lesions or precancer Condition or lesion that involves abnormal cells which have an associated risk with developing cancer (Ex: squamous metaplasia and dysplasia of the bronchial mucosa)

Answer 75

• 1. Genes that promote cell growth ( Proto-Oncogenes) • 2. Genes that inhibit growth ( Tumor Suppressor Genes) • 3. Genes that regulate apoptosis • 4. Genes that regulate DNA Repair

Answer 76

Genes are a sequence of nucleic acids found on a strand of DNA. They code for how to make a specific protien. The sequence of nucleotides determines the sort of sequence of AA in the protien The sequence of AA determines the proteins shape and that shape determines function So, a change in DNA sequence process to change the shape of the protein and in this case the protein is dysfunctional or always in a state of being turned on or running.

Answer 77

It is always going to be stimulating that cell to go through cell growth from the background. Tumor suppressor gene- We may los the ability to do the DNA repair or check to see if everything is good before proceeding.

Answer 78

• Group of genes that produce proteins that regulate cell growth, division, differentiation • Ras, HER2, Cyclin D • Mutations of proto-oncogenes are referred to as: ONCOGENES

Answer 79

Group of genes that slow down cell division allow for DNA repair • p53, Rb, p21, and BRCA1/BRCA2 (disruption in one of these genes can lead to that uncontrolled and unregulated cell growth) • Mutated p53 genes have been identified in more than one-half of all human tumor cells

Answer 80

Damage to DNA can initiate tumor growth development —Especially to the regulatory genes • Causes changes in the protein synthesis

Answer 81

Changes in the way genes are switched on and off without changing the actual DNA sequence (no mutations) Two types: DNA Methylation and Histone Modifications • These changes can affect a person’s risk of disease and may be passed from parents to their children

Answer 82

Altering the activity of DNA gene expression without changing the DNA sequence

Answer 83

Genotoxic • Damage to the DNA changing the DNA sequence

Answer 84

Any cancer-producing substance; often a distinction is made between epigenetic and genotoxic carcinogens

Answer 85

Carcinogens

Answer 86

Chemicals Radiant energy Microbial agent

Answer 87

Carcinogen

Answer 88

1. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) • Numerous strains of this virus- each having different effects on body —Benign and Malignant tumors — Some cause benign squamous papillomas (warts) tumors — Others cause several cancers — Squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix and anogenital region — Sexual and physical contact is an ability to contract it 2. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) • The first virus linked to a human tumor: Burkitt lymphoma • Discovered with the cells of a surprisingly diverse list of cancers including various lymphomas (Hodgkin lymphoma), nasopharyngeal carcinoma, gastric carcinomas *Causes infectious mononucleosis (mono) • Spreads through direct contact from an infected person (bodily fluids) 3. Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus (KSHV) • Also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) • Causes Kaposi sarcoma • Cancer of the soft tissues of connective tissues Associated with what condition? = immunodeficiency patients 4. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) • Epidemiologic evidence linking chronic HBV and HCV infection with hepatocellular carcinoma is strong • Estimated that 70% to 85% of hepatocellular carcinomas worldwide are due to infection with HBV or HCV • Hepatitis B virus contraction occurs when blood, semen, or other body fluid infected with the hepatitis B virus enters the body of someone who is not infected • Even a toothbrush- gross, don’t share your toothbrush • Hepatitis C virus contraction occurs with contact of infected blood

Answer 89

Abnormal Rb protein- always in activated state • ALWAYS ALLOWS CELL TO PROGRESS THROUGH THE G1/S checkpoint • Increase of cyclin-CDK complexes • Loss of CDKIs • HPV binds to the hyperphosphorylated state of Rb • Preventing it it from inhibiting the E2F transcription factors

Answer 90

Most commonly mutated gene in human cancers******* • Produces p53 protein • Involved in regulation of cell cycle and apoptosis • The p53 protein prevents neoplastic transformation by three interlocking mechanisms: • Activation of temporary cell cycle arrest (termed quiescence) • Induction of permanent cell cycle arrest (termed senescence) • Triggering of programmed cell death (termed apoptosis) • If Rb protein “senses” external signals, p53 can be viewed as a central monitor of internal stress, directing the stressed cells toward one of these three pathways

Answer 91

• Activates DNA repair • Arrest growth by holding the cell cycle at the G1/S regulation point on DNA damage recognition • Gives cell time to repair itself • Initiate apoptosis • Irreversible DNA damage • Initiate senescence • Short telomeres, morphological changes

Answer 92

B Process known as aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect (Cancer cells derive most of their energy from glycolysis Glucose is converted to lactate for energy followed by lactate fermentation, even when O2 is avaliable)

Answer 93

• Laboratory Tests - Lab tests of your blood, urine, or other body fluids that measure these substances can help doctors make a diagnosis • Involve testing blood or tissue samples for tumor markers • Tumor markers are substances that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells of the body in response to cancer • Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) as an example • Imaging Tests - • CT Scan • MRI • Nuclear Scan • Receive an injection of a small amount of radioactive material • Bone Scan • PET Scan (positron emission tomography) • Makes detailed 3-D pictures of areas inside your body where glucose is taken up • Cancer cells often take up more glucose than healthy cells • Receive an injection of a tracer called radioactive glucose • Ultrasound • X-Rays • Biopsy -Pathologist looks at removed tissue under a microscope and runs other tests to see if the tissue is cancer • Describes the findings in a pathology report, which contains details about your diagnosis • May be obtained in several ways • Needle • Endoscopy • Colonoscopy • Bronchoscopy • Surgery

Answer 94

• T = Tumor size/grade • N = Node status • M = Presence or absence of metastases • G = Degree of differentiation Staging I, II, III, IV Grade: Microscopic/Histology - how anaplastic are they?

Answer 95

Different cancers have different metastatic capabilities and characteristics • Important to have a system to grade and stage cancerous tumors -Understand how serious your cancer is and your chances of survival -Plan the best treatment for you -Identify clinical trials that may be treatment options for you • Grading Cancer —Based on the level of cellular differentiation • Staging Cancer — Extent of spread of cancer cells within the patient —Has more clinical value than grading

Answer 96

• Immunotherapy - Helps your immune system fight cancer • Targeted Therapy - Targets the changes in cancer cells that help them grow, divide, and spread • Hormone Therapy - Treatment that slows or stops the growth of breast and prostate cancers that use hormones to grow • Stem Cell Therapy - Procedures that restore blood-forming stem cells in cancer patients who have had theirs destroyed by very high doses of chemotherapy or radiation therapy • Precision Medicine - Helps doctors select treatments that are most likely to help patients based on a genetic understanding of their disease

Answer 97

• 1. Location and impingement on adjacent structures • 2. Functional activity such as hormone synthesis or the development of paraneoplastic syndromes • 3. Bleeding and infections when the tumor ulcerates through adjacent surfaces • 4. Symptoms that result from rupture or infarction • 5. Cachexia or wasting

Answer 98

Progressive loss of body fat and lean body mass • Accompanied by profound weakness, anorexia, and anemia • Current evidence indicates that cachexia results from the action of soluble factors such as cytokines produced by the tumor and the host, rather than reduced food intake

Answer 99

“Paraneoplastic syndromes are a group of rare disorders that are triggered by an abnormal immune system response to a cancerous tumor known as a "neoplasm." Paraneoplastic syndromes are thought to happen when cancer-fighting antibodies or white blood cells (known as T cells) mistakenly attack normal cells in the nervous system.” ** Basically- Antibodies and cytotoxic T cells created for the tumor attack the body’s own cells

Answer 100

• Hypercalcemia • Cushing syndrome • Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis

Answer 101

- Lung Cancers • Breast cancers • Lymphomas and leukemias

Answer 102

Corticosteroids work to reduce inflammation because they work to block phospholipase which leads to the ability to creat araco acid. But it will decrease the function of the immune system = in this case, the autoimmune disease is less severe.

Pathology Of Immune System (MODULE 8A & 8B) Flashcards

(208 cards)