Peers

Question 1

What are the four theories of peer relations

Answer 1

ethological theory, cognitive-developmental theory, social cognitive theory, group socialisation theory

Question 2

What do ethologists contend?

Answer 2

ethologists contend that attachment bonds have evolved as they help infants develop social responsiveness to other members of the species

Question 3

Outline Harry Harlow (an ethologists) perspective on aggression

Answer 3

aggression is probably biologically determined, however, the way that it is integrated into the behavioural system depends on the environment

Question 4

Outline Harlow’s monkey mother experiment experiment

Answer 4

involved giving young rhesus monkeys a choice between two different “mothers.” One was made of soft terrycloth but provided no food. The other was made of wire but provided nourishment from an attached baby bottle.

Question 5

Outline Harlow’s mother, peer and isolation monkey experiment

Answer 5

• Mother-only condition: (developed normal attachment to mother, Lacking a peer affectional base, their aggression was inappropriate - foolishly attacked larger dominant monkeys and were aggressive against defenseless younger animals.
• Peers Only Condition (Lacking a mother to clasp, they developed excessive self-stimulating behaviour – timid and easily frightened as they lack a secure maternal base from which to explore, Handled aggression appropriately – attacked strangers but minimized it towards friends)
• Total Isolation Condition (serious difficulties – extreme withdrawal, rocking and self clasping - inappropriate aggression, Children in the peer group form dominance hierarchies – helps to bring the conflict to an end before a physical fight begins – hence, from an evolutionary viewpoint, promotes survival).

Question 6

Outline the cognitive developmental theory

Answer 6

Piaget -

• Children’s respect for adult authority causes them to turn to adults to settle disputes.
• Locks children into the pre-operational stage
• When children resolve conflicts by themselves they are forced into perceiving other people’s thoughts, feelings, and desires and they learn to appreciate other peoples thoughts.
• Through sustained peer interaction children are believed to outgrow their pre-operational centration and move into concrete operations – expands social-cognitive skills.

Question 7

Outline social cognitive theory - Bandura

Answer 7

learn from models, provide social sanctions – positive and negative reactions from peers.

• Self-regulation – self standards ( pride or selfcensure – self-evaluations)
• Self-efficacy expectations (social comparison relative to similar peers)

Question 8

Across the ages of 2-12 years the frequency of peer contacts ____, and the frequency of adult contacts _____.

Answer 8

increases, decreases

Question 9

are peers more important than parents according to Harris

Answer 9

Group socialisation theory: “Children would develop into the same sort of adults if we left their lives outside the home unchanged and left them in their schools and neighborhoods – but switched all the parents around”

Question 10

Outline the development of peer sociability in infants and toddlers

Answer 10

• During the first few months of life there is little peer interaction
• By 12- 18 months, toddlers begin to react appropriately to each other’s behaviour
• By 18 months, they display coordinated interactions – enjoy imitating each other.
• By 20-24 months, a verbal component is involved as they describe ongoing activities to each other.
• By 18-24 months, display coordinated and reciprocal play

Question 11

Outline the development of peer sociability in children

Answer 11

• 2-3 years remain near an adult,
• 4-5 years of playful bids are more likely to be directed towards a peer than an adult.
• 6 - 10 years people had peer groups
• cliques develop in early adolescence
• ## heterosexual cliques develop in mid-adolescence

Question 12

Outline peers and dating relationships

Answer 12

about 90% of teens have dated by 15. Partners serve more of a companionship function than a romantic one.
Adolescents who date tend to be better adjusted emotionally than those who don’t date.

Question 13

how does secure attachment with parents influence peers

Answer 13

• Parents may foster or inhibit peer social ability.
• Choice of residence – near parks where children can come into contact with peers
• The influence of alternate care depends on the quality of the care (strong parental influence).
• School choice

Question 14

how does parental monitoring influence peers

Answer 14

• Indirect monitoring was associated with greater likeability by peers than more direct monitoring by parents.
• Mothers who believe their children are not very socially skilled intervene more in their children’s play activities.
• Supportive parents foster prosocialness in their children whereas those who become cross and angry and controlling foster poor emotional regulation.

Question 15

What is peer acceptance

Answer 15

a measure of a person’s likability (or dislikability) in the eyes of peers.

Question 16

what do sociometric measures measure

Answer 16

a child’s peer acceptance

Question 17

what are the categories of peer acceptance

Answer 17

• Popular children
• Rejected children
• Neglected children
• Controversial children
• Average-status children

Question 18

What factors are related to peer acceptance

Answer 18

• Parenting styles
• Temperamental characteristics
• Behavioural correlates
  ○ Aggressive-rejected children
  ○ Withdrawn-rejected children
• Social skills training

Question 19

outline the evidence for friends as a source of social support

Answer 19

in fourth grade parents provide most social support, whereas by tenth grade peers provide the most social support; the benefits of social support depend on its quality

Question 20

Outline the differences between same-sex and cross-sex friendships

Answer 20

• Linkage with future adult romantic relationships: Same-sex friendships prepare children and adolescents for romantic relationships
• Cross-sex friendships: Same-sex friendships are described as emotionally intimate at all ages, whereas cross-sex friendships are only described as intimate in late adolescence;
• girls’ same-sex friendships are more emotionally intimate than those of boys at all age groups.

Question 21

outline the benefits of friendships

Answer 21

• high quality friends tends to be associated with positive social outcomes, whereas poor quality friendships are associated with deviancy training
• Compared to those without friends, children with close (high quality) friendships report higher levels of selfesteem, are less lonely, are more satisfied at school, and these friendships may have a protective role against peer victimization

Question 22

what is the dark side of friendships according to Fitzpatrick and Bussey

Answer 22

• adolescents’ proneness to moral disengagement was associated with increased social bullying.
• a very best friend’s moral disengagement was associated with higher social bullying for those who perceived positive qualities in their friendship
• when the partner was morally disengaged and the actor perceived positive friendship quality in the dyad, the odds of the actor engaging in social bullying were significantly higher.

Question 23

outline the importance of supportive peer relationships

Answer 23

crucial for mental and physical health. Early adolescence is an especially important period in which peer influence and school environment strongly shape psychological development and maturation of core social-emotional regulatory functions

Question 24

outline the developmental differences in children’s friendships

Answer 24

• In preschool, children’s friendships are characterized by supportiveness and exclusivity
• During early and middle childhood (4-8 years), friends have typically been viewed as companions who share play preferences.
• During late childhood (10-11 years) children begin to spend more time with friends, develop an understanding of shared values, and engage in more intimate interactions
• By early adolescence (11-13 years) friends share similar interests, place greater importance on companionship and understanding each other, and engage in intimate self-disclosure

Question 25

what is co-rumination

Answer 25

Co–rumination which occurs among peers refers to extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings.

Question 26

what does co-rumination cause

Answer 26

• for third-, fifth-, seventh-, and ninth-grade participants (N= 608) co-rumination was related to high-quality, close friendships and aspects of depression and anxiety.
• Girls reported co-ruminating more than did boys, which helped to account for girls’ more positive friendship adjustment and greater internalizing symptoms

Question 27

outline the trend of peer influence

Answer 27

• increases as children age
• stronger than parental influences

Question 28

outline the relationship between parent and bullying

Answer 28

• authoritarian parenting which involves punitive parenting practices and promotes physical and psychological violence was positively associated with offline bullying and victimization and online victimization.
• uthoritative or flexible parenting which involves democratic practices in which children are seek help from their parents in dealing with bullying and look to their parents for comfort and guidance which was negatively associated with offline bullying and victimization and cyberbullying.
• Authoritarian parenting practices led to higher levels of peer alienation which led to higher levels of bullying and victimization and the reverse was found for authoritative parenting practices

Question 29

what is peer conformity

Answer 29

the tendency to go along with the wishes of peers or to yield to peer group pressure.

Question 30

outline the findings of peer conformity, self-efficacy, age differences

Answer 30

• Self-efficacy to resist peer pressure was related to less antisocial behaviour (Newton & Bussey, 2011).
• Berndt (1979) found that conformity to peer pressure for prosocial conduct did not change much across 3rd to 12th grade. However, peer sponsored misconduct increased across grades and peaked at 9th grade.
• Peer-sponsored misconduct tends to decrease by the end of high school.
• Adolescents are more able to make autonomous decisions and are less dependent on the views of peers and parents.

Question 31

What are cross-pressures

Answer 31

conflicts stemming from differences in the values and practices advocated by parents and those advocated by peers