Philip II (1556-98) Flashcards
Government under Philip
Philips character:
- while Philips work ethic cannot be faltered, he had a lack of political vision and was a slow thinker; he struggled to distinguish between important and trivial matters
- e.g. while Spain was busy preparing for Armada, he was debating the state of clerical dress with the Pope
- he communicated by letter which was a problem considering the size of his empire (took 2 weeks for letters to reach Brussels)
governance:
- like his father, he relied on numerous councils
- his absence at councils allowed councillors the freedom to express their opinions
administration and policy:
- from early 1570s, juntas emerged, performing similar functions to the councils
- 1st Apr 1573 Vazquez took his oath as the royal secretary and coordinated the juntas
- although informal, they met on a daily basis and flourished because they contributed much to the formulation of royal policies
- their particular value lay in the flexibility of their membership, as experts were frequently called as and when they were needed
- Junta de Noche an inner group of key secretaries who advised on major governmental strategies
- royal secretaries, were the vital link between the monarch snd his councils and juntas; they selected what letters the king would see in full and which just in summary or not at all
- e.g. Idiaquez withheld a letter from the Duke of Medina Sidonia in which he declined his appointment to command the Spanish Armada he Idiaquez knew the king would not accept this
- Philip asserted his authority over the Castilian cortes, although by the time of his accession it had lost almost all its rights
- they kept him informed if regional interests and concerns
- he focused his attention on the Poderes (instructions given by towns to their deputies)
- in the Castilian towns, there were at least 66 Corregidors
- Philip had inherited an Aragonese Kingdom that strongly upheld traditions and privileges, and it would have been foolish to challenge them
- he did not bother to exert significant political pressure as the financial benefits were negligible
Opposition: factions and revolts under Philip
key dates:
- 1565 - Siege of Malta
- 1567 - edict banned Morisco tradatidions
- 1568 - Morisco revolt began
- 1470 - attack launched by Don John
- 1591 - Aragonese revolt began
factions:
- he willingly promoted factions at court and he felt confident in encouraging debate
- he took care to select personnel in such a way that it would be sharply divided, this prevented him from being challenged by a united group of councillors
- the two key factions were associated with the prince of Eboli and the Duke of Alba
- Eboli supported by powerful Mendoza family
- the Eboli faction tended to be more moderate in foreign policy, while the Alba faction led the war party
- Perez took over Eboli faction after prince of Eboli’s death
- at its worst, factionalism could spiral out of control; the factional struggle between Perez (Eboli) and Vazquez (Alba) in Madrid in late 1570’s virtually paralysed government
- in the end, Perez overreached by interfering in affair of the Low Countries and Portugal with royal authorisation, contributing to his own demise
- Philip tended to treat grandees with suspicion, rarely employing them in domestic politics, and instead using them abroad
the Morisco revolt:
causes:
- Moriscos caused fear as possibility they could support the Turks or Muslim corsairs
- 85% of inquisitions targets were Moriscos by 1560
- Moriscos forced to pay farda tax (£20,000 yearly)
- export bans on silk and imposed heavy tax
- in 1560, those who couldn’t prove ownership of lands had them confiscated
- Turks siege of Malta in 1565 increased fears
- in 1567 a new edict banned use of Arabic, traditional clothing or follow any other traditional culture
- inquisition increased investigation of Moriscos
- the revolt:
- revolt broke out near Granada in Dec 1568
- in Jan 1569 only 4,000 rebels but Jan 1570 30,000 rebels
- attack launched by Don John of Austria in 1470
- Moriscos stronghold in Alpujarra Mountains
- there were atrocities on both sides:
- Moriscos captured Seron and killed 150, enslaving 80
- Cordoba led force of 800 against Inox, killing 400, enslaving 2,700
- the Marquis of Mondejar captured the fort of Guajar and killed everyone
- Don Johns troops eventually defeated rebel force
- consequences:
- 100,000 moriscos deported between 1570-73
- Moriscos expelled from Granada, trying to split them up
- 80,000 people moved and 30% died on route
- this made fear worse as they were seen in places never seen before
- Old Christians encouraged to settle of Moriscos lands and of the 400 now empty villages, 270 families moved
- uprising showed serious military weakness
- it left coast defenceless, so Philip built 84 new forts on Granadan coast
the revolt of Aragon:
- causes:
- Philip decided to intervene more directly with Aragon
- wanted to defend borders from French Protestantism spreading
- thought it was too lawless; silver convoy going from Castile to Italy attacked un Catalonia
- Philip sent troops to Valencia to defend coast but many complained as foreign soldiers weren’t allowed
- Philip then appointed foreign viceroy, Marquis of Almenara; serious threat to fueros
- the revolt:
- minor rebellion broke out in 1591, Perez escaped to Aragon from imprisonment and claimed his right as a citizen of Aragon ti be tried in court of the Justica
- a riot broke out in Saragossa in which Almenara was wounded and later died
- few ended up joining rebellion and it was mainly confined to Saragossa
Philip’s religious policy
key dates:
- 1545 - Council of Trent set up
- 1585 - Sixtus V became Pope
- 1590 - Sixtus died
Church reform:
- Church in urgent need of reform, many lower clergy were uneducated and impoverished
- in contrast, a minority was immensely rich, bishop income = 15,000-30,000 ducats
- in Diocese of Barcelona in 1544, only 6/67 parish priests were resident
- most important influence on reform was the Council of Trent set up in 1545
- a new missal (book containing prayers and customs) to be used by all was introduced
- Bishops were expected to live in their beneficiaries, visit their diocese regularly and preach regularly
- priests were to receive more education, provide for education of laity and remain within their parishes
- Philips reign witnessed the foundation of 17 new monasteries in Madrid
- reform also benefited greatly from individual nuns and monks; St Teresa of Alvia wrote various devotinal and mystical works such as her autobiography (The Way of Perfection and Interior Castle)
Papal relations:
- Philip always defended royal rights over Church rights; when Pius V banned bull fighting, Philip simply ignored the ban
- Philip clashed with Papacy in 3 areas:
1) control of the Church’s in his domains
2) activity of Spanish Jesuits
3) his conduct of foreign affairs
- Philip realised Jesuits had an important role in Catholic revival and initially endorsed their activity
- both Philip and Papacy suspected the other of pursing its own interests in foreign affairs
- relations worsen after succession of Sixtus V in 1585
- the king requested 1M ducats which had been agreed on in 1587 but Sixtus refused
- Spanish troops mobilised in Italy and Sixtus threatened to excommunicate Philip
- conflict seemed inevitable but was averted by Sixtus’ death in 1590
- ultimately Spanish-Papal relations were at best, uneasy
the inquisition:
- Philip discovered Protestant groups in Valladolid and Seville and auto de fe’s took place betwen 1559-62, where 278 people were prosecuted and 77 killed; by 1562 Protestantism effectively eradicated
- Spain did not recognise the Roman Index and instead made its own
- Valdes composed first vernacular Index
- the inquisition decided what should be banned
- this censorship greatly contributed to cultural isolation of Spain
Philip’s economic policy
key dates:
- 1557 - 1st bankruptcy
- 1560 - 2nd bankruptcy
- 1576 - 3rd bankruptcy
- 1596- 4th bankruptcy
- 1598 - govt in debt by 85M
- 1571 - Castile payed 18.5M for Dutch & Mediterranean military campaigns
financial inheritance:
- Philip inherited external debt of aprox 20M ducats
- Spain was in a state of virtual bankruptcy in 1557
movement of money:
- transferring money throughout Philips empire proved difficult
- 1568 Alba’s pay ships were seized
- threats from Dutch sea Beggars from 1572 onwards
crown income:
- wool was most important export and Mesta continued to control it
- from 1559-90 royal income went from 3M ducats - 10M ducats
- taxation increased by 50% between 1556-70 and by 90% between 1570-1600
- Church revenue amounted to 20% of Crown revenue by 1590s
- the excusado introduced, a tax on property of each parish
- the millones introduced, a tax on meat, wine, oil and vinegar; collected 10M ducats in 10 years
crown expenditure:
- expenditure rising much faster then income, led to numerous state bankruptcies (1557, 1560, 1576, 1596)
- interest from debts absorbed half the crowns income annually
- government in debt by 85M ducats by the time of Philips death in 1598
- war remained largest form of expenditure
- by 1570s Spains military campaigns costing 800,000 ducats monthly
- in 1571 alone, Castile payed 18.5M ducats for Dutch & Mediterranean campaigns
- Armada cost 900,000 ducats monthly
New World income:
-during Philips reign, it generated 64.5M ducats in gold and silver
- New World income explains why bankers continued to lend vast sums of money
- however it did lead to price inflation; from 1570-1600 Spanish inhabitants could afford 20% less goods
Philip’s foreign policy
key dates:
- 1559 - Peace of Cateau-Cambresis
- 1584 - Catholic League formed
- 1584 - Treaty of Joinville
- 1598 - Treaty of Vervins
- 1471 - Battle of Lepanto
- 1581 - Portuguese Cortes recognised Philip as King
France:
- in 1557 Spanish defeated French at battle of St Quentin, which resulted in the peace of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559; assuring Spanish ascendancy in Italy
- Spain government feared Huguenots (French Calvinists) might spread into Spain
- after death of Duke if Alencon, Henry of Navarre (calvinist) became heir to the throne, this led to the formation of the Catholic League in 1584
- France Catholic nobles and Spain signed Treaty of Joinville the same year: French Catholics promised to be neutral in the event of a Spanish war with England, and Philip was to give a monthly subsidy of 50,000* ecus
- Spanish not willing to let Henry of Navarre on the French throne and when Henry III was assassinated in 1589, Spanish increased military and financial support for the Catholics
- Henrys army defeated Catholic league at battle if Arques & Ivry
- Philips greatest mistake was to continue his military intervention after 1593 as Henry was forced to convert to Catholicism
- with the conversion, Henry had to support of majority of France, but Philip attempted to promote his daughter’s (Isabella Clara Eugenia) claim
- Henry declared war on Spain 1595 and to make matters worse Elizabeth I signed a treaty with Henry in May 1596
- in 1596 Philip forced to declare his 4th bankruptcy; he simply took on too much and his French intervention had prevented him from making progress in the Netherlands
- by 1598 was clear a treaty was mutually beneficial and Treaty of Vervins restated the terms of Cateau-Cambresis
Italy:
- Philip controlled: Naples, Sicily and the duchy of Milan
- Philip created a Council of Italy to help him govern his Italian territories
- Philip was eager to appoint competent representatives with: Perez as office chief secretary of the Council, Granvelle viceroy of Naples (1561-75)
- Milan was important for its production of armaments and for recruiting troops
- Naples was important in the struggle against the Ottomans, and aware of the threat, nobles maintained their own militias in costal regions
- Sicily also essential given its proximity to the frontline struggle with the Ottomans
- this firm basis in Italy facilitated Spains ability to mobilise forces
- Spain and Papacy largely united by their efforts to resist Ottomans
- Treaty of Cateau-Camresis marked Spain as undisputed master of Italian Peninsula
the Turks:
- in the 1560’s Philips policies in the Mediterranean were mostly defensive
- this changed after the formation of the Holy League in 1571 consisting of: the papacy, Venice, Genoa and Spain
- it made possible a heavy concentration of Christian forces which was necessary to challenge the Ottomans naval dominance
- Spanish force consisted of: aprox. 208 galleys, 100 sailing ships, 50,000 troops and 4,500 light cavalry
- Ottomans and Christian fleet were relatively balanced in numbers, though Holy League benefitted from the surprise advantage of 6 heavily armed Venetian galleasses
- the Battle of Lepanto was fought on the 7th Oct 1471 and Spanish overwhelmed Ottomans
- Holy League sank 110 galleys, and only lost 12 themself
- the victory discouraged major Ottoman expansion in the Western Mediterranean and arguably marked the end of Ottoman naval supremacy
- despite the victory, the allied fleet had to return to their respective ports meaning the Ottoman empire remained largely untouched
- a military stalemate was reached by the 1570’s and the Ottomans, reluctant to engage their forces in the Mediterranean, agreed to a succession of truces
Portugal:
- King Sebastian died in 1558, giving Philip the opportunity to take throne
- Philip took advantage of having mother from Portuguese royal family
- Philip appointed Moura to lay groundwork for succession
- he orchestrated brilliant propaganda campaigns promoting Philip and bribed any wavering Portuguese
- in the end Portugal was pressured by a show of force
- Alba led an army of 37,000, fleet commanded by Bazan and support from Medina Sidonia
- Portuguese cortes recognised Philip as king in 1581
- he was equally effective in consolidation:
- he won over powerful Braganca family, appointing Duke of Braganca as Constable of Portugal
- he promised to protect Portuguese rights and customs
- stayed in Lisbon 1580-83
- established Council of Portugal to maintain royal authority
- the annextion of Portugal gave Philip the 2nd largest colonial empire and put the Iberian Peninsula under 1 ruler for the first time in 9 centuries
Philip’s social policy
key dates:
- 1565 - University of Baeza established
- 1568 - University of Orihuela established
- 1572 University of Tarragona established
universities and printing:
- universities continued to thrive, contributing to the development of new ideas and intellectual movements
- establishment of universities of Baeza (1565), Orihuela (1568) and Tarragona (1572)
- Spanish printing industry was prolific; Spanish presses published 74 editions and 57 reprints of scientific treatises between 1561-1610
- the Escorial library alone contained 14,000 volumes by 1598
individuals:
- Rogete’sconstruction of telescopes made Spain the principle market for astronomical instruments
- Philip himself established a research centre in Madrid
- he also appointment 3 founding professors to a new academy of maths in Madrid
- Lavana, a Portuguese cartographer, recieved 400 ducats annually in order to undertake research on: cosmography, geography, topography and maths
- in scholarly and literary terms, Philips reign was undoubtedly a golden age
Philip in the New World
expansion, settlement and trade:
- Philip was more concerned with consolidating his possession then expanding as he already had such a large territory
- a few exceptions with: Florida and Philippines
- viceroy’s appointed in Mexico and Peru: Enrique in Mexico & Toledo in Peru
- they laid excellent foundations for colonial government
- however they were not unchallenged, with the French in Florida and Drake attacking the silver fleet
- nevertheless over 100 Spanish ships in the Atlantic by 1587
impact of the empire:
- administration of New World given high priority; Council of Indies was essential
- Seville remained key Spanish centre and population increased from 50,000-130,000 in the 16th century
- revenue amounted to 64.5M ducats during Philips reign
Philips foreign policy: Netherlands & England
key dates:
- 1567 - Alba sent to Netherlands
- 1568 - William of Orange led armies to remove Alba
- 1578 - Parma replaced Don John after his death
- 1579 - Treaty of Arras
- 1585 - Treaty of Nonsuch
- 1554 - Philip married Mary I
- 1561 - Philip prevented Pope excommunicating Elizabeth I
- 1586 - Elizabeth confiscated Spanish ships going to Netherlands
- 1571 - Ridolfi plot
- 1583 - Throckmorton plot
- 1586 - Babington plot
Netherlands:
- Philips authority became challenged by William, Prince of Orange, he was convinced too many Spaniards were involved in governing the Netherlands, and he also opposed the increasing persecution of Protestantism
- Philip planned to increase number of bishops from 4-18 to provide for religious needs and deal with heretics
- in 1567, Philip sent Alba to deal with calvinism in the Netherlands
- he set up the Council of Troubles which sentenced over 1000 people to death; it got the nickname the Council of Blood
- in 1568 William led 4 armies into the Netherlands to remove Alba, but the rebellion was put down by 1570
- Alba was forced to raise the funds within the Netherlands, so he imposed the tenth penny in 1569 which was a 10% tax which led to another uprising
- the only solution was for Castile to fund Spanish forces, but this was costing 700,000 ducats per month
- Philip also alienated the Dutch nobles; a small group dominated the Council of State and deprived Dutch grandees of any significant power
- the role of governors can also be blamed for the escalation of the crisis:
- Alba was brutal in his persecution of heretics as can be seen with Council of Troubles
- Requesens was authorised to abolish the unpopular new taxes and the Council of Troubles
- Requesens died in 1576 and without a governor, a series of attacks were made, including the sack of Antwerp by unpaid Spanish troops
- this ’Spanish fury’ escelated the revolt as it lost the support of the previously loyal southern states
- Don John had no option but to withdraw all foreign troops in response but fearing for his safety, he got Philip to send army back
- he was also far more interested in England as he intended to marry Mary, Queen of Scots and depose Elizabeth
- this meant his attention was diverted from what needed to be done in the Netherlands
- Parma replaced Don John after his death in 1578
- he was far more effective then his predecessors: he won some of the southern states back with the Treaty of Arras, and in 1585, used force to retake the rest, including Antwerp
- however he failed to retake the northern states as England officially became involved, signing the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585 and Philip insisted on Spains intervention in France, preoccupying Parma with French affairs
England:
- England presented a useful alliance against France
- in 1554 Philip has married Mary I on his fathers wishes
- relations worsened when Spain involved England in a war with France, in which they lost Calais
- following death of Mary I, Philip was eager to maintain good relations, even though Elizabeth I was Protestant
- in 1561 Philip prevented the Pope from excommunicating Elizabeth
- relations worsened as England came to consider itself the protector of Protestantism
- also England wanted to participate in New World trade
- English merchants attempted to trade with the New World either through smuggling or piracy
- Francis Drake seized £400,000 of Spanish treasure on his expedition around the world in 1577-80
- the arrival of Alba in Netherlands made England fear a Spanish armed presence nearby
- in 1586, Elizabeth confiscated Spanish ships on their way to the Netherlands to pay Spanish troops
- in 1583 she also gave financial support and a temporary place at court to Don Antonio (Portuguese pretender to the throne)
the Ridolfi plot (1571):
- aimed to put Mary, Queen of Scots on throne with Spanish support but it was uncovered and failed
the Throckmorton plot (1583):
- French Duke of Guise to marry Mary, Queen of Scots and invade England with financial support from Philip, but plot uncovered again and failed
the Babington plot (1586):
- Duke of Guise to invade England with Spanish support and free Mary, but letters written to Mary intercepted and plot uncovered, Mary finally executed
- 1585 England and Netherlands signed Treaty of Nonsuch as Elizabeth feared if Spanish got control of Netherlands, they would next target England
the Spanish Armada:
- signing of treatys spurred Philip to take action, he ordered an Armada to be prepared and made ready for an invasion
- Elizabeth heard about this, and sent Drake to raid Cadiz where he destroyed around 30 ships and stole £114,000 of Spanish treasure
- ultimately the Armada failed, half its ships were destroyed and 15,000 men died
- it failed largely because: its commander, Medina Sidonia, was unexperienced in naval warefare, and the attack on Cadiz destroyed large food and weapon supplies that were needed
- a second armada was sent in 1597 but this too failed, scattered by bad weather
- the war dragged on and continued after Philips death
