Philosophy final

Question 0

Analogues

Answer 0

Items being compared.

Have primary and secondary analogues

Question 1

Analogical reasoning

Answer 1

Reasoning that depends on a comparison of instances. If instances are sufficiently similar, the decision reached in the end is usually a good one. But if they are not sufficiently similar, the decision may not be good.

Question 2

Principles useful for evaluating most arguments from analogy

Answer 2

1. Relevance 2. Number of similarities 3. The nature and degree of diasanalogy 4. Number of primary analogues 5. Diversity among the primary analogues 6. Specificity of the conclusion

Question 3

Aalogical arguments in law

Answer 3

Based on precedents

Question 4

Differences of analogical arguments used inlaw

Answer 4

1. Smilarity is more elusive and is up to creativity of lawyers to find similarities in cases
2. Not all primary analogues (ex. Previous cases) hold up same weight

Question 5

Is an analogical argument inductive or deductive?

Answer 5

Inductivd

Question 6

Two things being compared in ‘argument from analogy is’

Answer 6

Called analogues

Question 7

Primary analogues

Answer 7

Analogue mentioned in the premise

Question 8

Secodnary analogue

Answer 8

Aalogue mentioned in the conclusion

Question 9

Moral reasoning

Answer 9

Analogues are useful in consteucting arguments

Question 10

Three kinds of cause

Answer 10

Sufficient condition
Necessary condition
Sufficient and necessary condition

Question 11

Mill’s methods

Answer 11

Method of agreement
Method of difference
Join menthod of agreement and difference
Method of residues
Method of concomitant variation

Question 12

Mill’s methods and science

Answer 12

Te methods of agreement, difference, and concomitant variation resemble the methods used by scientists to identify casual connections

Question 13

Method of agreement

Answer 13

Identifies necessary conditions

Question 14

Method of difference

Answer 14

Identifies sufficient conditions

Question 15

Join method of agreement and difference

Answer 15

Identifies sufficient and necessary conditions

Question 16

Method of residues

Answer 16

Ientifies generic casual connections

Question 17

Mthod of concomitant variation

Answer 17

Ientifies generic casual connections

Question 18

Hypothetical reasoning

Answer 18

Used to solve a problem when solution is not readily apparent

Question 19

Four basic stages of hypothetical reasoning

Answer 19

Occurance of a problem
Formulating a hypthesis
Drawing implications from the hypothesis
Testing the implications

Question 20

Four examples of hypothetical reasoning from science

Answer 20

Radium by marie curie
Neptune by adams and leverrier
Atmospheric pressure by torricelli
Refutation of spontaneous generation by louis pasteur

Question 21

Kinds of hypothesis

Answer 21

Empirical

Theoretical

Question 22

Empirical hypothesis

Answer 22

Can be proved true or false

Question 23

Theoretical hypothesisq

Answer 23

Can be confirmed in various degrees

Question 24

Criteria that bear on the tentarive acceptance of hypothesis

Answer 24

``` Adequacy (does the hypothesis fit the facts?) Internal coherence (are the component ideas with other hypotheses?) External consistency (ads there conflicts withother hypothesis?) Frutifulness (are new ideas suggested for future analysis?) ```

Question 25

Criteria that bear on the distinction between science and superstitipn

Answer 25

Evidentiary support, objectivity, integrity

Question 26

Evidentiary support

Answer 26

Superstitious hypothesis - tend to lack supporting evidence - evidence is based on observations of the natural world - anecdotal evidwnce is usually not acceptable - experiemnts must be replicable - hypothesis must framed in precise language - hypothesis mustne disconfirable - ad hoc modifications must be avoided - simple explanations are better than complex ones - best hypotheses lead to predictions that turn out to be true - superstitious hypothesis never lead to striking, new insights that turn out to be true

Question 27

Objectviity

Answer 27

- beliefs grounded in emotion are not well founded - well founded beliefs are not rooted in the preachings of a guru - mental laziness and magical thinking must be avoided - media is responsible for reinforcing magical thinking - placebo effect is responsible for many apparent cures - perceptuons are affected by expectstions - hallucinations can distort the content of perception - confabulAtion can distort the content of memory

Question 28

Integrity

Answer 28

- superstition often rests on fake evidence - practitoners of superstituon ignore bad predictions that arise in connection with their practice - they ignore coherence problems in their hypothesis - they ifnore conflicts between their hypotheses and other well confirmed hypotheses - scientists work on such problems until they are solved