Philosophy of Science and Qualitative Methods

Question 1

Define “Academics”

Answer 1

Academics are members of the paid academic staff of academic institutions, including professors, lecturers, tutors and research staff

Question 2

Who does research?

Answer 2

• Academics
• Students
• Government, Commercial and non-profit organisations
• Managers
• Consultants

Question 3

Define “evidence-based policy”

Answer 3

A term coined to describe this relationship between policy and research.

Question 4

Who pays for research?

Answer 4

• Unfunded
• University Internal funds
• Government-funded research councils
• Private trusts
• Industry

Question 5

What are the research report formats?

Answer 5

Academic journal articles
● Professional journal articles
● Conference presentations/papers
● Books
● Policy/planning/management reports
● Position statements
● Market profiles
● Market research
● Market segmentation/lifestyle/psychographic studies
● Feasibility studies
● Sport needs studies
● Tourism strategies/marketing plans
● Forecasting studies
● Impact studies

Question 6

Define “position statements”

Answer 6

They are compilations of factual information on the current situation with regard to a topic or issue of concern, and are designed to assist decision-makers to become knowledgeable about the topic or issue and to take stock of such matters as current policies, provision levels and demand.

Question 7

Define “market profiles”

Answer 7

Market profiles are similar to position statements, but relate specifically to current and potential consumers and suppliers of a product or service.

Question 8

Define “market research”.

Answer 8

Market research is a more encompassing activity than a market profile. Market research seeks to establish the scale and nature of the current market.

Question 9

Define “market segmentation/lifestyle/psychographic studies”

Answer 9

Market researchers attempt to classify consumers into sub-markets or segments on the basis of their basic descriptive characteristics.

Question 10

Define “feasibility studies”.

Answer 10

Feasibility studies investigate not only current consumer characteristics and demands, as in a market profile, but also future demand and such aspects as
the financial viability and environmental impact of proposed developments or investment projects.

Question 11

Define “Sport/recreation needs studies”.

Answer 11

Sport/recreation needs studies are a common type of research in local planning, covering sport and informal outdoor recreation, such as visiting parks.

Question 12

Define “Tourism strategies/tourism marketing plans”.

Answer 12

Tourism strategies/tourism marketing plans are the tourism equivalent of the sport/recreation needs study. Rather than referring to the needs of the local population, tourism strategies or marketing plans refer to the tourism demands of non-local populations to be
accommodated in a destination area.

Question 13

Define “forecasting studies”

Answer 13

Forecasting studies form a key input to many plans. They might provide, for example, projections of demand for a particular sport or group of sports.

Question 14

Define “Impact studies”.

Answer 14

Large built developments typically require an environmental impact study to be undertaken as part of the process of gaining approval from planning agencies, covering matters such as noise, traffic generation and impacts on wildlife and cultural heritage.

Question 15

Define “dissemination”.

Answer 15

A type of document made available to the public, often with invitations for public comment.

Question 16

Define “subject”.

Answer 16

Subject is used to refer to people providing information or being studied in a research project.

Question 17

Define “variable”.

Answer 17

Variable refers to a characteristic, behaviour pattern or opinion which varies from subject to subject.

Question 18

What are the aims of descriptive research?

Answer 18

Finding out, describing what is.

Question 19

What are the aims of explanatory research?

Answer 19

Explaining how or why things are as they are
(and using this to predict)

Question 20

What are the aims of evaluative research?

Answer 20

Evaluation of policies and programmes.

Question 21

Define “Multidisciplinary”.

Answer 21

It means that research from a number of disciplines is used.

Question 22

Define “Cross-disciplinary”.

Answer 22

It means that issues, theories, concepts and methods which are common to more than one discipline are involved.

Question 23

Define “Interdisciplinary”.

Answer 23

It refers to sub-fields of research which do not fit neatly into any particular discipline – for example time-budget research.

Question 24

Define “Epistemology”.

Answer 24

Epistemology refers to the relationship between the researcher and the phenomenon being studied.

Question 25

Define “Positivism”.

Answer 25

Positivism is a framework of research, similar to that adopted by the natural scientist, in which the researcher sees the phenomena to be studied from
the outside, with behaviour to be explained on the basis of data and observations objectively gathered by the researcher, using theories and models developed by the researcher.

Question 26

Define “Post-positivism”.

Answer 26

Post-positivism is distinguished from the classic positivist approach by some writers as an approach in which hypotheses found to be consistent with the data are deemed to be ‘not falsified’; researchers do not claim to have discovered the ‘truth’ but to have established probable facts or laws which are useful until such time as they are supplanted by new theories/laws which provide a fuller or more comprehensive explanation of the available data.

Question 27

What is the 4 criteria for causality?

Answer 27

• Association
• Time-priority
• Non-spurious relationships
• Rationale

Question 28

Define “time-priority”.

Answer 28

Time priority means that for A to be the cause of B, then A must take place before B.

Question 29

Define “Non-spurious relationships”.

Answer 29

Non-spurious relationships are defined as associations between two variables
that ‘cannot be explained by a third variable’

Question 30

What are the 3 approaches to quantitative research?

Answer 30

• Hypothetical-deductive
• Statistical
• Inductive

Question 31

Define “Hypothetical-deductive” research.

Answer 31

Quantitative research that conforms to the hypothetical-deductive model discussed under positivism above. Invariably statistical methods and tests, such as chi-square tests, t-tests, analysis of variance, correlation or regression are used.

Question 32

Define “statistical” research.

Answer 32

Quantitative research makes use of statistical methods but is not necessarily hypothetical-deductive. It can be descriptive, exploratory and/or deductive.

Question 33

Define “Inductive” research.

Answer 33

Quantitative research that is based on numerical data, but makes little or no use of statistical tests: its most sophisticated statistical measure is usually the percentage and sometimes means/averages.

Question 34

What is the difference between inductive and deductive research?

Answer 34

Inductive research starts with a question or observation while deductive research begins with a hypothesis.

Question 35

What are the components of trustworthiness?

Answer 35

• credibility (paralleling internal validity)
• transferability (external validity)
• dependability (reliability)
• confirmability (objectivity).

Question 36

What does authenticity include?

Answer 36

Fairness and ontological, educative, catalytic and tactical authenticity.

Question 37

What are the disciplines that contribute the most to sports research?

Answer 37

Sociology, physical education, economics, psychology/social psychology,
history and anthropology and political science.

Question 38

Define “ontology”.

Answer 38

Ontology refers to the nature of reality assumed by the researcher – in the positivist paradigm the researcher assumes that the ‘real world’ being studied is as seen by the researcher, while in interpretive and similar approaches the researcher’s perspective is not privileged: emphasis is placed on the varying views and realities as perceived by the people being studied.

Question 39

What are the sources of a research topic?

Answer 39

the researcher’s personal interests; reading research literature; a policy or management problem; an issue of social concern; a popular or media issue; published research agendas; brainstorming, which may draw on a number of the above sources; and/or opportunism.

Question 40

What are the 3 main purposes of research?

Answer 40

• knowledge for its own sake
• ideological/political
• policy related

Question 41

What are the 4 steps in devising a conceptual framework?

Answer 41

• Explore/explain relationships between concepts
• Identify/list concepts
• Define concepts
• Operationalise concepts

Question 42

What does the critical theory describe?

Answer 42

Knowledge is co-constructed between individuals and groups. Knowledge is mediated by power relations and therefore continuously under revision.

Question 43

What does “pragmatism” describe?

Answer 43

Practical knowledge is greater than any we can prove/explain in theoretical terms. Any way of thinking/doing that leads to practical solutions is useful.