Phsych/Soc Review Flashcards
1
Q
GABA
A
CNS inhibitory neurotransmitter. When agonized, would act as CNS depressant. Seizures and insomnia.
2
Q
Acetylcholine
A
Primary neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junction
3
Q
Dopamine
A
neurotransmitter associated with motivation and motor function, cocaine and amphetamine stimulate this
4
Q
Glutamate
A
Primary excitatory neurotransmitter of CNS. Stimulant. Can be cause of increased anxiety and stress
5
Q
Hippocampus
A
Regulates stress and anxiety.
6
Q
Medulla
A
Basic biological functions like respiration and heart rate.
7
Q
Pons
A
connects brain stem to cerebrum, may play part in sleep processes
8
Q
Self selection bias
A
is related to the reality that certain groups of people may be more willing than others to participate in a study, and therefore the sample may not be an accurate reflection of the population
9
Q
Stereotype threat
A
the self-confirming belief that one’s performance will support a negative stereotype about one’s own gender, race or other designation.
10
Q
Histrionic personality disorder
A
usually attention seekers, are prone to dramatic displays, and actually want their antics to be witnessed by others.
11
Q
intersectionality
A
various forms of oppression or discrimination, such as racism, sexism, or ageism, interact with one another to create a new, heightened form of oppression or discrimination that cannot be fully understood on the basis of its component parts.
12
Q
Hypothalamus
A
interface between the nervous and endocrine systems.
13
Q
cerebellum
A
involved in balance, coordinated movement, and the storage of non-declarative memory
14
Q
Explicit memory
A
Requires conscious, intentional recall
15
Q
Implicit memory
A
Automatic, UNCONSCIOUS recall, usually of skills, procedures, or conditioned responses.
16
Q
Habituation
A
A decreased response to a stimulus after the stimulus has been presented multiple times, due to a shift of attention away from the stimulus.
17
Q
Dishabituation
A
An increased response to a stimulus after habituation has already occurred. The old stimulus is suddenly reacted to as if it were new.
18
Q
Sensitization
A
An increased response to a stimulus after the stimulus has been presented multiple times. Sensitization (NOT dishabituation) is the conceptual opposite of habituation.
19
Q
hippocampus
A
The hippocampus is then responsible for analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term memory. It acts as a kind of sorting centre where the new sensations are compared and associated with previously recorded ones.
20
Q
Working memory
A
Working memory describes the form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily. Working memory is used, for example, to keep track of where we are in the course of a complicated math problem, and what the relevant outcomes of prior steps in that problem are.
21
Q
Retrospective memory
A
Retrospective memory is where the content to be remembered (people, words, events, etc) is in the past, i.e. the recollection of past episodes. It includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory, and declarative memory in general, although it can be either explicit or implicit.
22
Q
Prospective memory
A
Prospective memory is where the content is to be remembered in the future, and may be defined as “remembering to remember” or remembering to perform an intended action. It may be either event-based or time-based, often triggered by a cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue), or remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue)
23
Q
Classical conditioning
A
involuntary response to a neutral stimuli
24
Q
Operant conditioning
A
a consequence to a voluntary behavior
25
conditioned stimulus/conditioned response
can result from unconditioned and neutral stimuli to become conditioned, or "accustomed to" . Also known as when the association between the neutral stimuli and conditioned stimulus become acquired.
26
extinguish
Once an association has been acquired, it can be
extinguished by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the animal will stop exhibiting the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, and we say that extinction has occurred.
27
Spontaneous recovery
the animal is not simply forgetting the original association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and will occasionally show a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus even though the conditioned stimulus has been extinguished
28
shaping
describes the reinforcement of successive approximations for some target behavior
29
punishments
Punishments weaken the behavioral response, decrease its frequency, or stop it altogether
30
reinforcements
Reinforcement strengthen the behavioral response, or increase its frequency.
31
Escape learning (in response to negative reinforcement)
Subject adopts a behavior to reduce or end an unpleasant stimulus.
32
Avoidance learning
Subject adopts a behavior to avoid an unpleasant stimulus in the future.
33
Cones
Less sensitive than rods. Perceive color, used during day, located in fovea only, 20x less than rods
34
Rods
Less sensitive than cones, percieve black and white only, poor resolution of detail, contains rhodopsin pigment, 20x more than cones
35
Feature detection
form, color, motion: Parvo-still Mavro-moving
36
Rod/cone process
Rod/cone-> bipolar cell-> retinal ganglion cell-> Optic nerve -> brain
37
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
= Part of the thalamus; think of it as a relay center between the optic nerve and the visual cortex of the occipital lobe.
38
Visual cortex
Part of the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual stimuli.
39
processing (parallel)
The visual system processes different aspects of the visual world in separate streams of
information. This is referred to as parallel processing. For instance, motion and color are
processed in different areas. Feature detection is distinguishing between these characteristics.
40
outer ear
Includes the pinna (earlobe) and auditory canal.
41
middle ear
Includes the tympanic membrane (eardrum), and the three middle ear bones (in this
order outside to inside, lateral to medial): Malleus, Incus & Stapes.
42
Inner ear
Includes the cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals and the vestibulocochlear nerve
43
inner hair cells and outer hair cells of ear
responsible for transducing the mechanical displacement caused by sound waves into neural impulses. The outer hair cells of the inner ear are involved in amplifying incoming sound waves
44
Transmission pathway of an auditory impulse
1) Hair cells of the inner ear
2) Vestibulocochlear nerve
3) Brain stem
4) Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN): Part of the thalamus
5) Auditory Cortex: Part of the temporal lobe
45
Olfactory cells
Called chemoreceptors because they are triggered by membrane receptors that directly bind specific gaseous/vaporized airborne chemicals.
46
Transmission pathway of an olfactory impulse
1) Olfactory Sensory Neurons: Located in the olfactory epithelium of the upper nasal cavity.
2) Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I)
3) Olfactory Bulb (forebrain)
4) Higher-Order Brain Centers (Various: Amygdala, hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex, etc.)
47
Somatosensation
Colloquially called “touch” = Includes touch, texture, pain, pressure, stretching, temperature, and vibration.
48
10 MOST-FREQUENTLY-CITED GPS: (Gestalt principles)
1) Closure-“When seeing a complex arrangement of elements, we tend to look for a single, recognizable pattern.”
2) Continuation-“Elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived as more related than elements not on the line or curve.”
3) Common Fate-“Elements that move in the same direction are perceived as more related than elements that are stationary or that move in different directions.”
4) Proximity-“Objects that are closer together are perceived as more related than objects that are further apart.”
5) Similarity-“Elements that share similar characteristics are perceived as more related than elements that don’t share those characteristics.”
7) Good Gestalt
8) Symmetry-“People tend to perceive objects as symmetrical shapes that form around their center.”
9) Past Experience-“Elements tend to be perceived according to an observer’s past experience.”
10) Convexity-Convex rather than concave patterns tend to be perceived as figures.
49
true false effect
exemplified by true statements being verified more quickly than false statements are negated
50
central executive portion of working memory
comprised of both the phonological loop and the
| visuospatial sketchpad.
51
Things to know about neurons:
Remember that neurons:
1) Are frozen in G0 phase (unable to divide)
2) Depend entirely on glucose for energy
3) Don’t require insulin for glucose uptake
4) Have very low glycogen & oxygen storage capability and thus require high perfusion (blood flow)
52
Self serving bias:
when a person attributes personal successes to internal factors and personal failures to external factors.
53
Berkson's fallacy:
the sampling bias that results from selecting both the observed and control population from a hospital setting.
54
Specific real area bias:
occurs when the sampling for a study occurs at one location, which results in the omission of other populations.
55
humanistic perspective:
focuses on the potential for self-fulfillment that resides among all human beings.
56
Social cognitive perspective:
focuses on modeling behavior observed in others (a.k.a., social learning)
57
Social inequality:
the social structural condition wherein some people have significantly more resources (money, education, health, and power) than others in the same society.
58
Meritocracy:
social stratification based on personal merit (not social structural conditions such as social status or health).
59
Intra generational social mobility:
a change in a social position during one’s lifetime
60
Socialization:
the process by which social institutions instill ideals, values, mores, taboos, etc., into members of the social group.
61
Damage to Broca's area:
is associated with difficulties in speech production, but not speech comprehension.
62
Precentral Gyrus:
the primary motor cortex of the brain.
63
Wernicke's area:
associated with language comprehension.
64
Dispositional attribution:
generally involve making assumptions about an individual’s personality or character as a way of explaining or accounting for their behavior.
65
Situational attribution:
involves explaining someone else’s behavior based on influences or circumstances in their environment or culture.
66
Structural functional theory:
sees social stratification as functionally necessary for society and its members by rewarding those who work the hardest or contribute the most to society.
67
Symbolic interaction theory:
sees stratification as one factor (out of many) that guides and shapes our interaction with others. It is a micro-level theory that doesn’t successfully explain macro-level phenomena such as social stratification
68
Social loafing:
exerting lower levels of effort towards achieving a goal in a group setting,
69
Social Facilitation:
the beneficial effect that being in the presence of others has on the performance of well-learned tasks.
70
adrenal medulla secretes:
secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine as a function of sympathetic nervous system activation.
71
Glucocorticoids:
are secreted from the adrenal cortex in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone, which is released from the anterior pituitary
72
ritualism:
when someone accepts the conventional means but rejects the cultural goals (for example getting rich).
73
Retreatism:
when someone rejects both the conventional means as well as the cultural goals and drops out of society.
74
Humanism:
focuses on the capacity for everyone to achieve self-actualization given the appropriate environment.
75
Behaviorism:
focuses on overt behavior and uses principles of reward and punishment to describe how personality develops.
76
Psychoanalysis:
focus on the unconscious mind in shaping personality.
77
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
argues that emotion arises from physiological arousal that is cognitively labeled as a given emotional experience.
78
James-Lange theory of emotion
states that unique patterns give rise to emotional experiences.
79
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
suggests that physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.
80
Cognitive appraisal theory of emotion
argues that emotional experience depends on the appraisal of the situation in which one presently finds oneself.
81
availability heuristic
a cognitive strategy used to estimate the likelihood of some given event based on how many instances of such an event come to mind.
82
Gambler’s fallacy
refers to the erroneous assumption that the probabilities of independent events change because of a string of events that has previously occurred.
83
Somatic symptom disorder:
is a psychological disorder that involves an individual exhibiting symptoms of physical disease or injury in the absence of the actual disease or injury.
84
Fugue state:
a dissociative disorder in which an individual experiences a loss of memory of their own identity.
85
Preoperational stage: (in children)
children acquire language and engage in pretend play.
86
Concrete operational stage:
children acquire both conservation and reasoning
87
Formal operational stage:
children acquire abstract logic.
88
The Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation:
| social facilitation: perform better when being observed on simple tasks than complex ones
suggests that optimal performance is associated with an intermediate level of arousal.
89
Deindividualization:
involves a loss of one’s sense of themselves and personal responsibility when someone is a part of a larger group. This is often associated with a “mob mentality”
90
Bystander effect:
when help to a victim is withheld in situations in which
| there are other people around
91
Social loafing:
people will exert less effort towards a common group task because others are also engaged in completing the task.
92
Solomon Asch's (1952) famous experiment:
Conforming, it was obvious what the right answer was but when the rest of the group was saying the wrong one, the person being observed also said the wrong answer.
93
Internalization:
The process by which an individual accepts, as his or her own, a set of norms established by people or groups influential to that individual.
94
Identification:
The process of incorporating the characteristics of a parent or other influential person by adopting their appearance, attitudes, and behavior.
95
Diff between conformity, compliance, and obedience:
To conform is to passively change behavior based on influence of others, compliance is to change when asked or encouraged by others, and to obey is to change due to a command by some sort of authority figure.
96
Formal and Informal social control:
Formal: Laws, rules and sanctions enforced by authority figure.
Informal: disapproval such as shame, ridicule, sarcasm or criticism.
97
Group polarization:
Tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme (on either end of a continuum) than would individual members of that group acting alone.
98
Groupthink:
Tendency of groups to make decisions that are incorrect or illogical based on a desire to maximize group consensus and minimize group conflict.
99
Irving Janis’ Eight Symptoms of Groupthink:
A. Illusions of invulnerability: The group setting fosters a heightened sense of optimism that can lead to riskier behaviors.
B. Group’s inherent morality: The group setting fosters a belief that the group’s actions are above moral reproach.
C. Group rationalization: Group members do not question assumptions that are being made and ignore any warnings that might deter them from the present course of action.
D. Out-group stereotyping: Group members view those outside of the group as biased, ignorant, and/or morally inferior.
E. Suppression of dissension: Individuals in the group feel pressure not to voice disagreements with the group.
F. Self-censorship: Individuals who may doubt the group do not voice their concerns in the group setting.
G. Illusions of Unanimity: Group members believe that the view of the majority is held by everyone in the group.
H. Mindguards: Group members shield the group from any dissenting information.
100
Folkways:
rules for casual social interaction. We all have an understanding that we face the front of an elevator. Someone violating this folkway would face the opposite direction and look at the other passengers.
101
Mores:
are norms that have great moral significance and are widely observed by members of society.
102
Taboos:
are the most morally significant and even the thought of violation brings about a strong, negative response from members of society.
103
Sanctions:
are consequences, formal or informal, assigned by members of society as a result of norm violation.
104
Anomie:
Normlessness; A state of instability due to a lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social standards or values.
105
Deviance:
▪ Functional Theory: Deviance is not necessarily negative, and is in fact necessary for social
order. Deviance helps clarify the boundaries of social norms. It can also play a positive role in
initiating social change.
▪ Differential Association Theory: Through interaction with others, individuals learn the values,
attitudes, and techniques for deviant behavior, especially criminal behavior.
▪ Labeling Theory: Deviance and conformity result from how others respond to another person's actions rather than what these others actually do. LABELS
▪ Strain Theory: Conformity, Innovation-reject society to achieve social goals, Ritualism-Reject culture goals but rigidly adhere to societal rules, Retreatism-rejects both, societal dropouts, Rebellion-rejects both but comes up with own versions of both (tea party activists).
106
Stigma:
extreme dislike or negativity toward a person or group (or some characteristic of that person or group) based on perceived deviance from social norms. For example,
psychologists frequently discuss “the stigma of mental illness.”
107
Diff between collectives and groups:
collectives are defined as an unplanned activity among a large number of people that may result in social change. It is often controversial. Groups: primary, fam and close friends have most influence. Secondary, EX: an intro college course, is temporary and likely will not be influenced by one another after class ends.
108
Examples of collective behavior:
Fads, mass hysteria, riots
109
Socialization:
A lifelong process, beginning in infancy, by which an individual acquires the habits, norms, and beliefs of society. Primary: influence from fam and close friends. Secondary: influence from groups, education, media, religion, etc.
110
4 Main agents of socialization: (in order)
o The Family
o Mass Media
o Peers
o Workplace
111
Attribution:
The tendency to infer that the behavior we observe in others can be attributed to specific causes. (Often inaccurate)
Dispositional: behavior attributed to disposition and way of being. (internal locus of control)
Situational: behavior attributed to situation in which it is expressed. (external locus of control).
112
Collectivist vs individualistic cultures:
Western Cultures = more individualistic = more prone to the Fundamental Attribution Error: (more likely to associate behavior with disposition than situation)
Non-Western Cultures = more collectivist = more prone to make situational attributions.
113
Social perception:
How we perceive other individuals or groups, form impressions of them, and make judgments about them. Our social perceptions are often inaccurate due to various forms of bias.
114
Self Serving BIas:
Focusing on strengths, downplaying weaknesses. Examples would include believing that we are more intelligent than we actually are or by blaming personal failures on others.
115
Confirmation bias:
we tend to overestimate how “right” we are about some particular belief and experience the confirmation bias by seeking out and attending to information that
agrees with our own perspective while ignoring information that would counter our beliefs.
116
The primacy effect:
is experienced when we recall the first few items in a list more readily than other items. Examples would include remembering the names of the first few people you met at a party better than others
117
The recency effect:
is experienced when we recall the most
recent items from a list of items better than others. Again, remembering the last few names or
words in a list would or using the most recent interactions to form an impression of a person
would serve as examples.
118
Just world hypothesis:
is the tendency to believe that people get
| what they deserve.
119
The halo effect:
is a bias by which a positive appraisal in one area will automatically generate positive appraisals in other areas.
120
Reliance on central traits:
describes how our perceptions of others are affected by focusing on characteristics that are of particular interest to us. So for example, we may have
more positive perceptions of others that show key characteristics that we view positively and
more negative perceptions of people that show key characteristics that we view negatively.
121
Ethnocentrism:
judging another culture based solely on the values of one’s own culture.
122
Cultural relativism:
is judging another’s culture by its own standards.
123
Role conflict:
occurs when there is a clash between the roles associated with two or more statuses
124
Role strain:
refers to stresses among the roles associated with one particular status. For example, a parent may feel closer to one of their children more so than the others. In order to treat each child fairly, however, the parent must put those feelings aside.
125
Role exit:
Role exit refers to the process by which people disengage from important social roles
126
Ainsworth's strange situation:
In this scenario, the infant is separated from and reunited with their caregivers. The infant’s reactions to each event are video recorded and scored to determine the degree to which the infant is securely attached to their caregiver.
127
What is umami responsible for detecting in taste?
Amino Acids, protien
128
Primary group:
long-lasting, close interactions, tight bonds, unlikely to dissolve
129
Secondary group:
short-lived, superficial, weak bonds, dissolve easily
130
What are in groups and out groups?
In-groups are those social groups that members feel an affinity for, aloyalty to and a respect for. In contrast, out-groups are those social groups that individuals feel
competition or conflict toward.
131
Dyad:
smallest possible group; tend to be emotional and unstable; by definition a dyad is dissolved if one person leaves the group; less likely to survive.
132
Triad:
addition of one person adds stability; disputes often mediated by the third member of the group; more likely to survive (even if becomes a dyad to do so).
133
Large group:
as group size increases, stability and longevity also increase, but intimacy, loyalty, bonding, sense of responsibility, level of individual contribution, and consensus all decline. Most stable group size.
134
Weber and Parkinson's 6 and 7 characteristics of bureaucracy:
Formal Hierarchical Structure
Management by Rules
Organization by Functional Specialty
Either an “Up-Focused” or “in-Focused” Mission
Purposely Impersonal
Employment Based on Technical Qualifications
Number of Management/Professional Staff is Always Increasing (Parkinson)
135
Mcdonaldization:
the tendency of large organizations to standardize operations, even when such standardization may be nonsensical in certain situations, in attempt to achieve consistency and efficiency.
136
Cognitive dissonance:
the feeling of discomfort associated with holding two conflicting beliefs.
137
The Cocktail party Effect:
a specific instance in which we may suddenly shift our attention to something that was previously ignored because of some cue that draws our attention.
138
What part of the brain is responsible for motor learning:
Cerebellum
139
Schemas:
are patterns of thought that we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among those categories
140
Piaget's stages of cognitive development:
1) Sensorimotor 0-2
2) Preoperational 2-7
3) Concrete operational 7-11
4) Formal operational 11+
141
Age related memory changes:
Overall memory = Declines;
Procedural memory = Stable;
Working memory = Significant decline
Semantic memory = Stable
142
Barriers to Effective PS (Problem Solving):
| • Mental Set
Predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem; a tendency to rely on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past. Mental sets can lead to rigid thinking and a lack of cognitive flexibility.
143
Functional fixedness:
One example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object or tool in the ways we have seen it used previously
144
Cognitive bias:
An error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, a lack of objectivity, a failure to consider all available options or consequences, or prejudice toward
one approach or outcome.
145
Heuristics: Rules of thumb
Representative Heuristic = Reliance on prototypes or stereotypes as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
Availability Heuristic = Favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic = Giving higher priority to the very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it.
146
Deductive reasoning:
Conclusions are based on assumed premises; also
| referred to as “Top-Down Processing.”
147
Inductive reasoning:
Making generalizations from specific observations; also referred to as “Bottom-Up Processing.”
148
Confirmation bias:
seeking out information that agrees with our
| own perspective and paying less attention to any information that might challenge our previously held beliefs.
149
“Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences.”
1) Visual-Spatial
2) Bodily-Kinesthetic
3) Musical
4) Interpersonal
5) Intrapersonal
6) Naturalistic (added by Gardner later, some texts report only seven intelligences)
7) Linguistic
8) Logical-Mathematical
150
Galton's theory of intelligence:
| coined phrase Nature vs nurture, correlations
Nature, NOT Nurture. Despite his twin studies providing groundbreaking evidence for nurture, Galton leaned toward a stronger genetic component.
Eugenics supporter.
151
Spearman:
Introduced the concept of General Intelligence—often called the “g factor” and assigned a lowercase variable, g. Spearman argued that general intelligence was the
bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed.
152
Binet:
First to develop an intelligence scale, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and the concept of mental age vs. chronological age. Binet’s purpose was to identify children who needed extra educational help or attention in school. Adapted by a Stanford professor to create the Stanford-Binet IQ Test widely in use today.
153
Dyssomnias:
Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Sleep Apnea: Difficulty breathing while asleep.
154
Physiological effects of chronic sleep deprivation:
Positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression, and multiple chronic diseases including: heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.
155
Psychoanalytic theory: (freud)
Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires,
thoughts and motivations. Dreams can serve
as a virtual form of wish fulfillment.
156
Cognitive theory: (Hall)
Dreams are a conceptualization of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions
about five concepts: our self, others, the
world around us, morals, and conflict.
157
Information processing theory:
Memories and information accumulated during the day are consolidated during sleep. Dreaming is the cerebral cortex associating images or meaning with this consolidation process.
158
Problem solving theory:
Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems
encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind—unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.
159
Activation synthesis theory:
Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems
encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind—unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.
160
Phonology:
focuses on the phonemes (sound units within a given language) and how they can be combined in meaningful ways.
161
Morphoemes:
(the smallest units of language that carry meaning) can be used by combing one or more phonemes together, and morphology involves focusing on how
words are formed from combinations of morphemes
162
Syntax:
refers to the rules that govern how words are ordered into meaningful sentences. Colloquially, we refer to syntax as the rules of grammar
163
Semantics:
deal with the meaning of language and involve issues about how meaning is changed as a function of the relationship among the words that are used
164
Pragmatics:
refers to the ability to competently use language appropriately in any given social context.
165
Behaviorist or learning theory for language development:
asserts that we are born without any knowledge of language and that we learn language through classical learning mechanisms (e.g., being reinforced for engaging in linguistic behavior) and through observational learning.
166
The nativist or psycho linguistic theory:
asserts that humans are prewired for language at birth
| and that language will naturally emerge as we grow and interact with our environments.
167
The interactionist theory of language development:
asserts that language acquisition occurs in
| predictable, fixed stages of development.
168
Broca's Area:
Motor aspects of speech (e.g., moving your mouth and tongue)
169
Arcuate fasciculus:
Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area communicate via a bundle of axons called the arcuate fasciculus. This connection allows integration of language comprehension and speech.
170
3 Components of emotion:
▪ Subjective Experience (a.k.a., Cognitive Response) = The subjective interpretation of the mood or feeling experienced by the individual.
▪ Physiological Response = Physiological changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin temperature observed in the individual experiencing the emotion.
▪ Behavioral Response = Facial expressions or body language that accompany the expression of emotion
171
Ekman's 7 universal emotions;
```
▪ Fear
▪ Anger
▪ Happiness
▪ Surprise
▪ Joy
▪ Disgust
▪ Sadness
```
172
James Lang theory of emotion:
emotions arise from physiological arousal. In other words, we only experience fear because of the activation of the sympathetic nervous system upon encountering a threatening stimulus.
173
Cannon Bard theory of emotion:
asserted that the physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time. In other words, fear is felt at the exact same time that sympathetic nervous system activation occurs. However, research indicates that if signals of physiological arousal are blocked, then the emotional experience is blunted.
174
Schachter singer theory of emotion:
posits that emotions are composed of 2 factors: a physiological component and a cognitive component. Here, physiological arousal is interpreted in context which leads to the emotional experience.
175
The limbic system:
Region of the brain most directly tied to the emotion. The ventral prefrontal cortex is also involved. Research suggests the LEFT prefrontal cortex processes
positive emotions and the RIGHT prefrontal cortex processes negative emotions.
176
Functions of the limbic system:
```
Amygdala (implicit emotional memory)
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus (explicit emotional memory)
Corpus Callosum
Fornix
Septal Nuclei
Cingulate Gyrus
```
177
(Nature of stress) Primary Appraisal:
= Initial evaluation of the potential threat. It is suggested that we judge the potential threat to be either: irrelevant (unimportant), benign-positive (good), or stressful (bad).
178
(Nature of stress) Secondary Appraisal:
= If the threat is determined to be stressful, the individual next judges whether he or she has the resources to cope with the stress.
179
General Adaptation Syndrome
describes three stages in one’s response to stress:
1) Alarm Stage
2) Resistance Stage
3) Exhaustion Stage
180
managing stress:
▪ Problem-Solving Approach: Find solutions, obtain help, stress prevention plan, etc.
▪ Emotional Approach: Change how you feel about the stressor through positive thinking, taking
personal responsibility, internal locus of control, etc.
• Proven Tools for Stress Management = Exercise, relaxation, spirituality.
181
Theories of motivation:
o Instinct Theory = Behavior is motivated by evolutionary instincts.
o Arousal Theory = Behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. That optimum level varies among individuals. People seek new interests, action, or stimuli when arousal is low to increase arousal. When arousal is too high (hyperstimulation) they reduce activity or seek more relaxing activities to reduce the level of arousal.
o Drive Reduction Theory = Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce or eliminate an uncomfortable or undesirable internal state.
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
(Bottom to top): Physiological-breathing, food, sex
Safety-security of body, health, family Love/belonging-friendship, family, intimacy Esteem- confidence, respect, achievement Self Actualization-morality, creativity, spontaneity
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The ERG theory of needs:
existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. The existence needs combine Maslow’s physiological and safety needs into one category. Relatedness needs combine portions of Maslow’s love/belonging needs and esteem needs. Growth needs combine portions of Maslow’s esteem needs and self-actualization needs.
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Self determination theory of needs:
* Autonomy (i.e., a sense that one is in control of one’s own life choices)
* Competence (i.e., feeling capable at a task; the ability to excel at something)
* Relatedness (i.e., a sense of being accepted in social settings or relationships)
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Cognitive theory:
Behavior is motivated by thinking; including plans, goals, expectations, perceptions and attributions.
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Expectancy value theory;
An aspect of Cognitive Motivational Theory. The magnitude of one’s motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of an interplay between an individual’s 1)
expectation of success and 2) perception of the relative value of the rewards associated with success.
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Opponent-process theory
is centered on homeostatic principles. Whenever we take some substance this creates a physiological and psychological state that pushes us away from the
norm
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Three Primary Components of Attitude
▪ Cognitive = How you THINK about something or somebody.
▪ Affective (Emotional) = How you FEEL about something or somebody.
▪ Behavioral = How you BEHAVE toward, or with respect to, somebody or something.
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Functional attitudes theory:
▪ Knowledge: Attitudes give us valuable information about other people, events, and the likelihood of outcomes.
▪ Ego-Expressive: Attitudes are one route through which we express our self identity.
▪ Adaptive: Socially-acceptable attitudes provide an adaptive advantage in society much like certain random mutations provide an evolutionary advantage.
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Self perception theory:
Suggests that actions influence attitudes because people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior.
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Foot in the door phenomenon:
People are more likely to agree to a larger or more difficult request if they first agree to a smaller request. In this case, the behavior of the person making
the request changes the attitude of the person being asked to do something.
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Role playing effects: (Stanford prison experiment)
A person acting out a role is likely to internalize the attitudes associated with that role. In this case, one’s own behavior (acting a part) directly impacts, almost
determines, the attitudes they will hold.
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Cognitive dissonance theory:
A state of unpleasant psychological tension experienced when one holds two attitudes or beliefs that are in conflict with one another. A person is likely to ease the tension by changing their attitude or belief to remove the conflict. This case illustrates that our
behaviors are often in conflict with our attitudes.
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When is cognitive dissonance least likely to be expressed?
When a person:
• Holds the attitude as the result of personal experience
• Is an expert in the subject
• Frequently expresses the attitude
• Expects a favorable (i.e., positive) outcome
• Has a risk of gaining or losing something based on the outcome
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Learning theory of attitude change:
Attitudes can be changed by learning. This includes classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
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Dissonance theory of attitude change:
People change their attitudes because they feel cognitive dissonance, as a method to reduce that discomfort.
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The elaboration likelihood model:
how attitudes are formed and changed
and is often discussed in the context of persuading someone to change their attitudes about a
given situation. The Central route involves thoughtful
consideration of information that is being presented (Person must have an open mind). The peripheral route: can be used when the person who is
being persuaded has very little interest in the topic at hand. ( short lived)
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Characteristics model:
▪ Target = Person receiving/processing the message. Higher intelligence = Less likely to be persuaded by shallow or one-side messages, more likely to respond to reason and logic. Moderate self-esteem = Most likely to be persuaded. High/Low self-esteem = Less likely to be
persuaded. Mood and mind-frame of the target alters the likelihood of persuading them.
▪ Source = Person or source delivering the message. Attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness = Increased likelihood of persuading target. Credibility = Strong positive correlation with successful target persuasion.
▪ Message = The actual words, images, or other information presented to the target. Balance (presentation of both sides of an issue) = Increased likelihood of persuasion.
▪ Cognitive Routes = The nature of the approach to persuasion. Main Route = Presentation of data/information to target and asking them to change their mind after evaluating the information. Peripheral Route = Suggesting the target ignore data/information and decide based upon the reliability of the source (Celebrity endorsements utilize this approach)
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Self esteem:
Relatively stable and enduring, Answers the questions: “How do I feel about myself?”; “Why am I of worth?”
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Self image:
My mental picture of my own characteristics, ▪ Answers the questions: “How do I see myself?”; “How do others see me” (In ways I’ve internalized); “How do I perceive that others see me?”
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Self identity:
Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that people use to define themselves. Answers the question: “Who do I think that I am?”
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Identity:
how I am defined by myself, by others, AND
in various situations: “I am a leader. I am a pre-med student. Answers the questions: “Who am I?”; “Who am I in various social roles or settings?”
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Self Schemas:
A pre-existing, organized pattern of thought (i.e., cognitive framework) about oneself that is used to categorize or process information. my cognitive framework about myself: “I am an athlete; therefore, I make friends who are also athletic.”
▪ Answers the questions: “What does this mean [based on my schemas]?” “How will I act [based on my schemas].”
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Self efficacy:
The strength of a person’s belief in their own abilities. self-evaluation of one’s ability: “I am confident I can accomplish anything.” ▪ Answers the question: “What am I capable of doing?”
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Self concept:
A collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. Self-Schemas + Self-Esteem + Self-Image + Self-Identity + Past Self + Present Self + Future Self. Is a collective mental picture of oneself.
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Kohlbergs theory of moral development:
1) Pre-conventional Morality (pre-adolescence) = Obedience, Self-Interest
2) Conventional Morality (adolescence to adulthood) = Conformity, Law and Order
3) Post-conventional Morality (adulthood, if achieved) = Social Contract, Universal Human
Ethics
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Erickson's theory of psychosocial development:
1) Trust vs. Mistrust
2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
3) Initiative vs. Guilt
4) Industry vs. Inferiority
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation
8) Integrity vs. Despair
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Freuds' theory of psychosexual developoment:
1) Oral
2) Anal
3) Phallic
4) Latency
5) Genital
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Social Identity:
A person’s sense of who they are based on the groups to which they belong.
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Social identity theory:
A theory suggesting that individuals derive significant pride and self esteem from their group memberships. As a result, individuals always strive to INCREASE the
status of the group to which they belong (i.e., their IN-GROUPS), and will discriminate and hold prejudices against other groups to which they do not belong (i.e., their OUT-GROUPS).
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Influence of individuals on identity formation:
▪ Imitation: Especially in children, modeling and imitation of others influences identity formation.
▪ Role-Taking = Adopting and acting out a particular social role. This could be as simple as a child playing “cops and robbers,” or the more complex types of
role-taking that help adults feel empathy for others (i.e., “put yourself in someone else’s shoes”).
▪ Looking-glass Self = A theory suggesting that a person’s self-concept is largely determined by how they believe others see them. From this perspective, the self is not a function of what we are, but what others think we are.
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Influence of groups on identity formation:
▪ GROUP MEMBERSHIP: One’s identity is tightly associated with the groups to which one belongs.
Religion, nationalism, and ethnicity all directly favor the creation of an identity that matches other members of one’s group.
▪ CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION: The expectations and norms of one’s culture, along with the socialization processes to which one is subject, provide a strong driving force during identity formation. Certain identities may be encouraged, or discouraged by different cultures.
▪ Reference Group = Any group to which a person usually compares him or herself.
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Object permanence:
the cognitive ability associated with knowing that when an object/person is out of sight, it does not disappear from existence
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Cerebral cortex:
reasoning and problem solving
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Drive reduction theory:
Suggests that reducing unpleasant internal subjective feelings of stress and bolstering self esteem with a therapeutic intervention would reduce compulsive needs.
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Expectancy violation theory:
describes how we react when our expectations are violated.
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Weber's law:
the just noticeable difference is a constant ratio of the stimulus.
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Social cognitive theory:
(or known as social learning theory), learning through observation and external factors.
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Psychoanalytical theory:
Focusses on childhood experiences and repressed desires
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Psychosocial development theorists:
Focus on developmental milestones and overall progression from less advanced states or cognitive abilities to more advanced states or cognitive abilities.
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Erickson's theory of psychosocial development:
in childhood most individuals pass through a period of conflict between intimacy and isolation that must be resolved successfully. Associated with love, intimacy, and the forming of relationships.
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An emic approach:
one that takes the interpretations of situations by the individuals under study as matters of fact,
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Spreading activation:
The essential process to memory performance is the retrieval operation. It is proposed that the cognitive units form an interconnected network and that retrieval is performed by spreading activation throughout the network.
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Three parts of short term memory:
phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, which are both part of the central executive.
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Structural functionalism or functionalism theory:
sees society as being a complex system made up of
interdependent institutions that work together to promote stability and the status quo. Any change is seen as dysfunctional. Members of society have generally reached consensus on what is right and wrong, good and bad. Functionalists are interested in the social system as a whole, how it operates, how it changes, and the consequences produced.
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Conflict theory:
sees social life as characterized by inequality where groups and individuals compete for scarce resources. This results in various levels of wealth, power and prestige across society. Social inequality effects everyday interaction at the micro level and more macro
phenomena (race and ethnicity, social class, sexuality). This perspective is interested in how inequality is reproduced. Typically, those who are advantaged want to stay advantaged, whereas those disadvantaged continue to struggle to get more for them.
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Symbolic interactionism:
sees society as the product of everyday interactions among Individuals. Unlike functionalism and conflict theories that take a macro approach, symbolic interactionism is a micro level theory meaning that its focus is on social interaction in specific situations. It
focuses on three main principles:
1) Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they have for them
2) The meanings arise from the interactions with others.
3) The meanings are changed through interaction.
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Social constructionism:
is also known as phenomenology or phenomenological sociology. It is the study of human experience in everyday life. The theory is interested in how individuals
perceive, think and talk about social life. Central to the theory is the concept of the social construction of reality – how individuals assign meaning to perceptions and experiences through interaction. Consequences follow from the construction of reality. Another central concept is the life-world. This is the everyday routines and experiences that are taken for granted. These routines and experiences are the source of individual experiences and they help to shape groups and societies.
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Exchange theory:
explains that people act rationally to get what they need by exchanging goods and services with others. Relationships continue with others (or not) based on a simple calculation of rewards minus costs equal outcome. If the outcome is either neutral or positive,
meaning the individual gets more from the interaction that it costs, the relationship is likely to continue. If, however, the outcome is consistently negative, this theory predicts the relationship is likely to end as the relationship costs more than the individual benefits from it.
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Rational Choice theory:
sees all actions as fundamentally rational and people ascertain the costs and benefits of any action prior to acting. Actions are rationally motivated, despite appearing otherwise. It is related to social exchange theory including the same sort of cost benefit
analysis, but differs with its emphasis on the individual acting rationally
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George Herbert Mead: Symbolic interactionist that proposed I and Me. What are they?
“I” = The active, spontaneous, autonomous self
| “me” = Socialized, sense of self is derived from others
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Difference between segregation and stratification in schools:
Segregation: separation based on race, socioeconomic status
Stratification: EX would be schools that have curriculum of stratified difficulty, or remedial vs normal classes
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Modernization:
A societal transformation away from a traditional, rural, agrarian society, and toward a secular, urban, industrial society.
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Secularization:
A societal transformation away from close identification with religious values or institutions, and toward non-religious, secular values or institutions.
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Fundamentalism:
Religious movements focused on “returning to” or “preserving” pure, original, or unchanged values, teachings or behaviors. This is often a direct reaction to social change, especially modernization and secularization.
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Medicalization:
The process by which all human illness, disability, discomfort, or related problems, are assumed to
have a medical or clinical cause and/or solution. Usually has a negative connotation.
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The "Medical Model" of understanding illness and disability:
sees the illness or impairment as the problem. The illness or disability is the target of cure and the individuals are the passive receivers of services. Diagnosis and treatment is the primary approach. Often these individuals receive more health care than they need, receiving one expensive diagnostic test after another
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The "Social Model" of understanding illness and disability:
sees the structures within a society as the problem. The ill or people with disability are active participants working in partnership with others. Prevention and integration rather than treatment is the primary
approach. The team approach is emphasized, shifting medical care from expensive medical specialists to less expensive nurse practitioners and physician assistants. This approach benefits everyone, pushing society to evolve.
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INcidence:
incidence is the number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease. An incidence rate is the number of new cases of a disease divided by the number of persons at risk for the disease.
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Prevelence:
Therefore, the number of prevalent cases is the total number of cases of disease existing in a population. A
prevalence rate is the total number of cases of a disease existing in a population divided by the
total population.
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Morbitity:
is another name for illness. (amount sick)
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Material vs Symbolic (Non-material) Culture:
Material: includes all of the physical artifacts created by members of society.
Symbolic: includes the ideas created by members of
society. Sociologists are principally interested in studying non-material culture. Symbols, language, norms, values and beliefs are all types of non-material culture.
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Culture Lag:
refers to the fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others causing conflict with the cultural system. An example of this is the use of drones. The technology outpaced the public policy, resulting in
policymakers trying to play catch up in creating laws governing the use of these unmanned aerial vehicles
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Multi-Culturalism:
is a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions. This is in opposition to the concept of the melting pot, where everyone becomes like one another.
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Counterculture:
A secondary culture that is antagonistic toward mainstream culture and has the overt goal of changing it. Countercultures are often political in nature because they are focused on enacting change
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Cultural Transmission VS Cultural Diffussion:
Cultural Transmission: also known as cultural learning, is the way a group of people within a society or culture learns and passes on new information.
Cultural Diffusion: is the spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to the next, like how we've picked up slang words from other languages.
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What is the factor that most directly drives human evolution?
CULTURAL CHANGE
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Gerontology:
The scientific study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging.
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Age cohorts:
Generational segments of society that share common characteristics or life experiences because of the time period in which they were born: Baby Boomers, Gen-X,
Millennials, etc.
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Ageism:
stereotyping or discrimination based on one’s age
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Difference between sex and genter:
Sex is biological matter. Gender refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being male or female.
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Race:
NOT genetic or directly measurable. It is inferred or determined subjectively based on a certain set of phenotypic traits, such as facial features and skin color.
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Racialization:
ascribing a racial or ethnic identity to a group that does not self-identify as that race or ethnicity.
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Racial formation:
racial categories are not permanent or easily defined, but are constructed by various forces in history and society. Racial identities can be created, strengthened, and destroyed, and are always fluid
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Demographic shift:
a change in the makeup of a population over time as measured by demographic factors such as age, population size, diversity, etc.
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The Malthusian theory of Population:
was developed in response to a spike in the population
growth. Thomas Robert Malthus was an English economist who warned that unbridled population growth would lead to chaos. That we'd grow faster than food can grow so would overpopulate.
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Demographic transition: (name the 4 stages)
▪ Stage 1: Pre-industrial society; high fertility; high mortality.
▪ Stage 2: Still pre-industrial; Decreasing mortality as a result of societal improvements (e.g., sanitation, healthcare, nutrition).
▪ Stage 3: Shift from agricultural toward industrial; Decreasing fertility as a result of contraception, women’s rights, and smaller family size.
▪ Stage 4: Industrial society; low fertility; low mortality.
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Relative depraviation:
the experience of being deprived of something to which one feels entitled. It is said to be relative because it usually arises from comparing one’s own situation to
that of others and feeling that one has less than what one deserves. Is considered a potential cause of social movements anddeviance
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Globalization:
integration of individual economies and cultures into a more unified global economy and culture.
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Hyperglobalization perspective on globalization:
globalization is a major new epoch in human history,
| national boundaries will be dissolved. CAUSE = economic logic of a global economy.
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Skeptical perspective on globalization;
current globalization is fragmented and regionalized. The peak of globalization occurred in the 19th century and nationalism is now on the rise. CAUSE = N/A,
because globalization isn’t really occurring—it is a myth.
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Transformationalist perspective on globalization:
globalization may be occurring, but the degree to
| which it is, and its eventual outcomes is undetermined. CAUSE = no single cause is known.
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World System's Theory:
Theory emphasizing a global inequality that is similar to the stratified inequality present in individual societies
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Urbanization:
The tendency of population to move away from rural or agricultural settings and be concentrated in urban settings—usually because of the lure of economic opportunity.
265
Environmental Justice:
A state in which the benefits and burdens of interacting with the environment are equally distributed among all people independent of race, ethnicity or class.
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Cultural capital:
consists of ideas and knowledge people draw upon as they engage in social life. Examples of cultural capital include being able to speak in public to using
the correct utensils at the dinner table.
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Social Captial:
is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. An example of social capital is the individual who belongs to a fraternity or sorority and upon graduation is hired by an alumnus from the same fraternity or sorority
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Social Reproduction:
is the process through which entire societies and their cultural, structural and ecological characteristics are reproduced
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Intergenerational VS Intragenerational Social Mobility:
* Intergenerational = change in social class by one or more members of a family between generations.
* Intragenerational = change in social class by an individual within their lifespan
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Vertical vs Horizontal mobility:
* Vertical = a change in social status or class (e.g., poor individual marries into a rich family).
* Horizontal = a change in position within a class that does not result in a change in social status (e.g., a working-class man gets a new job with a small pay raise; the job comes with no new status or significant increase in wealth).
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Relative vs Absolute Poverty:
* Relative = low income compared to other individuals.
* Absolute = income too low to provide life necessities, persisting for a period long enough to cause harm or endanger life.
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The Neighborhood effect:
Segregation of the elderly, disabled, minorities, or the
poverty-stricken into neighborhoods or housing projects can lead to social exclusion and even social isolation—an extreme case where a person has no contact, or nearly no contact, with society.
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Frontal Lobe:
Conscious movement (motor cortex), executive functions, language [1] (Broca’s area), reasoning, judgment, problem-solving, etc
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Parietal Lobe:
Tactile sensation, spatial reasoning, some language [2]
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Occipital lobe:
Vision (primary visual cortex)
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Cerebral cortex:
Executive functions, complex perception
| and cognition
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Thalamus:
Consciousness (sleep/wake), relay
| between subcortical areas and cerebrum
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Hypothalamus:
Hunger, thirst, emotion (2°); major endocrine f(x) via releasing hormones to the pituitary gland
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Limbic system:
Emotion (1°), memory
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Basal Ganglia:
Voluntary motor control, procedural memory
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Superior Colliculi:
Visual motor reflexes
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Inferior Colliculi:
Auditory center, hearing reflexes
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Medulla Oblongata:
Breathing, heart rate, digestion
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Pons:
Sensory and motor tracts between the medulla and the cortex
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Cerebellum:
Balance, refined motor movements
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Reticular Formation:
States of consciousness (sleep wake)
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Spinal Cord:
Reflexes, bundled tracts to and from
| peripheral nervous system
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Pineal Gland (forebrain):
= Secretes melatonin, regulates sleep, receives input from retina regarding circadian rhythms.
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Amygdala: (forebrain, lymbic system)
Emotion, motivation, implicit emotional memory
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Hippocampus;
```
Memory consolidation (short-term long-term)
and explicit emotional memory.
```
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Posterior Pituitary:
Secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH: a.k.a., vasopressin)
| and oxytocin.
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Anterior Pituitary:
Secretes FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin and GH
| mnemonic: FLAT PiG
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Acetocholine:
found in both the CNS and the PNS. In the CNS, acetylcholine is involved in arousal and attention. Depletion of acetylcholine centrally is associated with the memory deficits that characterize Alzheimer’s disease. In the PNS, acetylcholine is the primary
neurotransmitter of the neuromuscular junction and is also found in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
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Epinephrine (AKA Adrenaline)
is found primarily in the PNS and is associated with the stress response elicited by activation of the
sympathetic nervous system
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Norepinephrine:
is found in both the CNS and PNS. Centrally, norepinephrine is associated with attention and emotional processing. Anxiety disorders and depression are associated with decreased norepinephrine activity. Peripherally, norepinephrine contributes to the stress response associated with activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
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Dopamine:
is found in the CNS and is associated with
sensorimotor integration and in reward processing. Parkinson’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome, Huntington’s chorea, and Schizophrenia are all associated with abnormal activity in the dopamine system.
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Serotonin:
is found in the CNS and is associated with the homeostatic regulation of sleep and appetite. Serotonin is also involved in regulation of mood. Lowered
serotonin levels are associated with depression.
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GABA:
is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS.
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Neurotransmitters VS Neuropeptides:
neurotransmitters = faster, shorter-lived effects; neuropeptides= slower, longer-lasting effects.
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Innate behavior:
Behavior thought to be predominantly genetic and present regardless of environmental influences
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Learned behavior:
Behaviors thought to be predominantly environmental (i.e., learned via experience), and independent of heredity.
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Adaptive value:
The degree to which a behavior increases evolutionary fitness
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Twin Studies: Monozygotic:
Genetic influence is CONTROLLED (same); Studies examine twins raised in different homes so that environmental influence is VARIABLE (different)
304
Twin Studies: Dizygotic:
Genetic influence is VARIABLE (different); Studies examine twins in the same home, so that environmental influence is CONTROLLED (same)
305
Regulatory genes:
: Regulatory genes are genes that code for a substance that regulates the transcription of another gene (up or down, promotion or inhibition).
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Familial concordance:
Behaviors shown to run in families or be more frequent among children of parents with that behavioral trait.
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Borderline personality disorder:
Characterized by pervasive instability in interpersonal
relationships, self-image, and behavior. This instability often disrupts the individual’s sense of self-identity and leads to extreme fears of abandonment.
308
Difference between OCD and OCPD:
OCD does it to alleviate anxiety, is more of a way of dealing with the challenges of life they expect perfection in all of their things.
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Biological markers of schizophrenia:
▪ Strongly associated with increased dopamine levels in the brain.
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Biological markers of depression:
Decreased monoamine levels in the brain (i.e., the neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine). Increased cortisol level and glucose metabolism in the amygdala.
311
Biological markers of bipolar disorder:
Increased monoamine levels in the brain
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Biological markers of Parkinson's disease:
Parkinson’s is a neurodegenerative disease
characterized by slow, halting movements, tremors, muscle rigidity, and a shuffling gait. Dementia
and language difficulties are common, but not always present.
▪ Decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia due to a decrease in dopamine
production by the substantia nigra
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Sigmund Freud ID
100% UNCONSCIOUS
Responsible for all instinctive and primitive behaviors.
The only one of the three components present from birth.
Primary or most important component of personality, the “source of all psychic energy.”
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THe primary process of the personality's "ID"
would be a way that the id deals with the frustration of delayed gratification because it serves as a memory of the object needed for gratification until the gratification could actually be realized.
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Wish fulfillment:
As the ego and superego come online and actively suppress some of the id’s demands, a person
might experience dreams that serve as wish-fulfillment. Denied its demands, the id seeks to satisfy them through unconscious thought processes.
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Libido:
The “psychic energy” created by the survival and sexual instincts. It is part of the Id, and was considered by Freud to be the driving influence of all behavior.
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Freud's EGO:
Operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious and UNCONSCIOUS realms.
Responsible for helping the desires of the Id to be realized in a way acceptable in reallife scenarios. Also helps balance the perfectionist tendencies of the Superego.
NOT present at birth; develops from the Id
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Secondary Process:
is the ego’s attempt to satisfy the demands that are represented by the primary process.
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Reality principle of the EGO:
Because the id’s demands would often be inappropriate, the ego operates on the reality principle to delay the id’s gratification until a more appropriate time.
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Freud's SUPEREGO:
Operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious and UNCONSCIOUS realms.
Responsible for judging action based on internalized moral standards obtained from parents and society. Often called the “perfectionist” portion of Freud’s personality theory. Further suppresses impulses of the Id and influences the Ego to be more idealistic than realistic.
Develops around age five
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Displacement (defense mechanism)
involves diverting unacceptable feelings onto someone or something other than their source. For example, a child who is angry at her parents for disciplining her may bite her little sister
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Sublimation: (defense mechanism)
involves channeling unacceptable thoughts or urges into something that is more acceptable. Sublimation might be used by artists who use some personal
tragedy to energize them to create a new work of art
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Reaction Formation (defense mechanism)
involves behaving in ways that are in direct contradiction to one’s true feelings. a teacher who resents a student yet bends over backwards to provide an unfair advantage to that student would be
using reaction formation as an ego defense mechanism
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Jung's view of the personal Unconcious:
those parts of our minds that we are not consciously
aware of but that affect our behavior and can be revealed to us in our dreams. In this way, Jung’s view of the personal unconscious was very similar to Freud’s ideas about the unconscious mind.
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Jung's view of the collective unconcious:
the portion of the unconscious mind that is inherited and contains universal themes through all of our lives. The personal unconscious is what allows us
to be creative and original in our thoughts.
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Jung's Archetypes:
Unique to Jung, nothing comparable from Freud. Images and thoughts that have universal meaning across cultures. Perhaps arising from our shared ancestral past.
Persona-is how one presents themselves to the world and is often represented by the symbol of a mask.
Anima: represents the female in a male
Animus: represents the male in a female
Shadow (similar to Freud’s Id): an archetype that embodies uncertainty and danger and it is often alluring in some way
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Jung's 8 cognitive processes: (personalities)
Extroverted-Sensing, Introverted-Sensing
Extroverted-Intuiting, Introverted-Intuiting
Extroverted-Thinking, Introverted-Thinking
Extroverted-Feeling, Introverted-Feeling
****Basis for Myers-Briggs Type Inventory test, (personality test)
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Humanistic personality theories:
: Personality consists of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we strive to reach our individual needs and goals (i.e., self-actualization). Fundamental to humanism is the idea that people are inherently good.
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Psychoanalytic vs Humanistic perspectives:
* THINK of Psychoanalytic as: Psychoanalytic = Patients are “sick”, repressed, or have other troubles in need of treatment. A person is DEFINED by their neuroses.
* THINK of Humanistic as: Humanistic = How healthy individuals strive toward selfrealization; HOLISTIC view of the person, as more than the sum of their neuroses.
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MAX WERTHEIMER: Gestalt Therapy
A humanist approach to therapy emphasizing the
treatment of the individual as a whole, rather than reducing the person to a sum of their individual behaviors, drives, or neuroses.
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KURT LEWIN: Field Theory
Focuses on the state-of-mind of the patient as the sum of interactions between their individual personality and the “total field” (environment).
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GEORGE KELLY: Personal Construct Theory:
Personality is composed of the various mental constructs through which each person views reality.
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Carl Rogers: Client centered therapy:
In CCT, therapists should not direct the therapy or offer
solutions. This is a MAJOR DEPARTURE from psychoanalysis, in which the therapist actively drives the interpretation of patient behaviors, dreams, etc. In CCT, the client directs the discussion. Further, the therapist must always be empathetic, genuine and show
unconditional positive regard for the client, regardless of circumstance.
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Trait personality theories:
Personality is the sum of broad, relatively-stable characteristics or dispositions, called traits. More focused on unique differences between individuals, whereas psychoanalytic or humanistic perspectives focus more on commonalities among all people
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Type theorist view: (of personality)
Personality characteristics exist as discrete, fixed
| categories. Most people will fit into one category or another (e.g., Introverts and extroverts are two types of people).
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Trait theorist view: (of personality)
Personality characteristics are part of a larger continuum of personality (e.g., Introversion and extroversion are traits describing one’s position along a
continuum. Individuals can be at either end, or anywhere in the middle).
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Five factor model of personality:
```
Openness to Experience
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Neuroticism
```
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Social cognitive personlity theories:
Personality is the result of observational learning, self efficacy, situational influences and cognitive processes.
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Albert Bandura's (ex of social cognitive theory) reciprocal determination:
An individual, their behavior, AND their environment interact, rather than the environment exclusively influencing behavior. This suggests that individuals
can mold the environment that influences their development.
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Biological personality theory:
Personality is predominantly the result of the expression of genes. Personality traits are the result of heritable biological characteristics.
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Behavioral personality theory:
Personality is the sum of those behaviors that have been reinforced over time.
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Situational personality theory:
Personality (and behavior generally) is the result of external, situational factors rather than internal traits or unconscious motivations.
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What is a PET scan used for?
mapping specific regions of the brain.
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3 components of emotion;
physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli), expressive displays (how you express your emotions), and subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective).
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The stroop effect;
The Stroop effect describes the phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile different pieces of information relating to colors than to reconcile similar pieces of information.
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Iconic memory:
Visual sensory memory that is incredibly short lived, believed to last for only a few milliseconds.
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What does " quasi" mean?
Usually referencing the lack of randomness in a study.
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Continuity theory of aging:
States that older adults will usually maintain the same activities, behaviors, personality traits, and relationships as they did in earlier phases of life.
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Stereo blindness:
The inability to use retinal disparity as a cue for seeing depth.
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What is second shift?
the tendency of employed women to do a substantial amount of household chores that may account for up to a full second shift of work
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Self Reference effect:
The tendency of persons to encode and recall information more efectively when the information has more relevence to themselves personally
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World systems theory:
There are significant economic and social differences across countries based on their economic abilities and global positioning.
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Rumination:
continuously thinking about or replaying in ones mind aspects of a situation that are upsetting. Thought to maintain negative emotions and lead to depressive symptoms.
