phys review #3 Flashcards
(109 cards)
1
Q
virulence
A
ability to cause disease
2
Q
5 total types of leukocytes
A
3 granulocytes and 2 non-granulocytes
3
Q
granulocytes
A
1=neutrophils
2=eosinophils
3=basophils
4
Q
non granulocytes
A
1=monocytes
2=lymphocytes
5
Q
two types of lymphocytes
A
B cells
-transform into plasma cells that secrete antibodies
T cells
-responsible for cell mediated immunity
6
Q
lymphoid tissues
A
-Bone marrow
* Lymph nodes
* Spleen
* Thymus
* Tonsils
* Adenoids
* Appendix
* Brochus-associated lymphoid Tissue
(BALT)
* Peyer’s patches (GALT)
- Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue
7
Q
innate immune system
A
Responses work
immediately upon
exposure
* Exogenous: pathogen-
associated molecular
patterns
* Endogenous: damage-
associated molecular
patterns
8
Q
adaptive immune system
A
Customizes defenses for
specific pathogens
- T and B lymphocytes as
well as antibodies
9
Q
molecules important in innate defense
A
neutrophils, macrophages, and several plasma proteins
10
Q
defenses of innate immune system
A
- Inflammation
- Interferon
- Complement system
- Natural killer cells, Neutrophils,
Macrophages, Dendritic cells,
Eosinophils, and Mast cells
11
Q
in INNATE IMMUNITY Phagocytes have pattern recognition
receptors (PRR’s) for detecting
threatening agents
A
Toll like receptors
retinoic acid inducible gene
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization
domain NOD) like receptors
12
Q
ultimate goal of inflammation
A
Ultimate goal is to bring phagocytes and
plasma proteins to invaded or injured area
13
Q
phagocytes with key role in inflammation
A
neutrophils and monocytes
14
Q
sequence of innate immunity inflammation response
A
1= defense by resident tissue (macrophages)
2=Localized vasodilation and increased capillary permeability (histamine release by mast cells)
3=localized edema
4=walling off inflamed area (clotting cascade)
5= emigration of leukocytes
6= leukocyte proliferation
7=Marking of bacteria for destruction by Opsonins
- Opsonins: make bacteria more susceptible to
phagocytosis
8=leukocyte destruction of bacteria
15
Q
emigration of leukocytes in innate immunity
A
-Neutrophils and Monocytes (that mature into macrophages)
- Margination – blood borne neutrophils and monocytes stick to
inner endothelial lining of capillaries in affected tissue.
- Diapedesis: Leukocytes start leaving vessels
- Leukocytes find injured area by chemotaxis by sensing things like
cytokines
16
Q
cytokines
A
Protein signal molecules – help regulate immune
responses
*affect distant locations- do not interact directly with antigens
17
Q
what are lost cells replaced by in nonregenrative tissuee?
A
scar tissue
18
Q
chronic inflammation can lead to illness
A
Alzheimer’s Disease, atherosclerosis and coronary
artery disease, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis,
obesity, diabetes, and possibly cancer
19
Q
interferon
A
Chemical (cytokine or cytokines) released
nonspecifically from any cell infected by a virus
*whistle blower
20
Q
anti cancer effects of interferons
A
Enhances effects of NK cells and Tc-cells.
* Slows cell division and suppresses tumor growth
21
Q
Natural killer (NK) cells
A
-Naturally occurring lymphocyte-like cells
- Nonspecifically destroy virus-infected cells and
cancer cells
- Antibodies enhance their activity, but they are
non-specific.
- Directly lyse cell membranes upon first
exposure to these cells.
22
Q
complement system (innate immunity)
A
-Nonspecific response
- Forms membrane attack complexes that punch holes
in victim cells
- Composed of plasma proteins that are produced by
the liver and circulate in inactive form.
- Originally named “complement” because it
complements the actions of antibodies
23
Q
complement system of innate immunity activated in 2 ways
A
1.Primary mechanism activated by antibodies to kill
foreign cells. Adaptive response – classic complement pathway
- Also activated by exposure to carbohydrate chains
present on surfaces of microorganisms but not on
human cells. – Alternate complement pathway.
24
Q
membrane attack complex sequence of events
A
C1 is activated → activates C4 → activates C2
→ activates C3 → activates C5 through C9
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two classes of antibody immunity
1- antibody mediated, or humoral immunity
2-cell mediated immunity
26
define anitbody
mmunoglobulin produced by B
lymphocyte against a specific antigen
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antibody mediated or humoral immunity (part of adaptive immunity)
Involves production of antibodies by B lymphocyte derivatives known as plasma
cells
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cell mediated immunity
-Involves production of activated T
lymphocytes
- Directly attack unwanted cells
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origins of T cells vs B cells
-Whether they are a T cell or B cell depends on site of
final differentiation and maturation of the original cell in the lineage
- B cells differentiate and mature in the bone marrow.
- T cells are processed in the Thymus (hence their name)
30
thymosin
-hormone important in maintaining the T-cell lineage
* Enhances the proliferation of new T cells in
peripheral lymphoid tissue
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antigen
-Large, foreign, unique molecule
- Induces an immune response against itself
- In general, the more complex a molecule is, the greater its antigenicity
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T-dependent vs T-independent antigens
-T-independent: stimulate production of
antibodies from B cells without help of a T-cells
- T-dependent: typically protein antigens, require the help of a helper T-cell to
stimulate production of antibodies.
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BCRs cause B cells to bind with antigens, once they do this what happens
-most b cells differentiate into active plasma cells
-other b cells become dormant
-1-2% become regulatory B cells
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function of plasma cells
Produce antibodies that combine with a specific kind of antigen
35
gamma globulins or immunoglobulins
antibodies in the blood
36
immunoglobulin subclasses
IgM
-initial antibody produced by the adaptive immune
system in response to a foreign pathogen
* Secreted in early stages of plasma cell response
IgG
-Most abundant immunoglobulin in blood
* Produced in large amounts when body is exposed to
same antigen
IgE
-Helps protect against parasitic worms
* Antibody mediator for common allergic responses
IgA
-Found in secretions of digestive, respiratory, and
genitourinary systems;
also in milk and tears
IgD
Present on surface of many B cells, function is
uncertain
37
describe composition of antibody
Composed of four interlinked
polypeptide chains
- Two long, heavy chains and two
short, light chains
* Properties of tail portion
determine functional
properties of the antibody
* Identical antigen-binding
fragments (Fab) at tip of each
arm (unique for each different
antibody)
* Tail is the constant (Fc) region.
Within each subclass the tails
are identical.
38
how can antibodies physically hinder antigens?
By neutralization, they combine with toxins and prevent harmful chemicals from interacting with susceptible cells
- Can bind to foreign cells by agglutination
39
how do antibodies enhance activities of other defense systems?
- activating complement system
-enhancing phagocytosis
-stimulating killer NK cells
40
clonal selection theory
-diverse b cells are produced during fetal development
-When antigen arrives, the naïve
lymphocytes (clones) that have
the correct BCR (B-cell
receptors) are activated
(selected).
* First antibody produced is IgM,
which are inserted into the B
cells membrane.
- These bind to the antigen, &
specific Ab produced
41
active immunity
-“self-generated”
- Results from exposure to an antigen
42
passive immunity
-“borrowed immunity”
- Results from transfer of preformed antibodies
- Can provide immediate protection or bolster
resistance
- Example of passive immunity is transfer of IgG
antibodies from mother to fetus
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natural vs artificial active immunity
Naturally acquired active immunity
* Natural exposure to antigen
- Artificially acquired active immunity
* Response to vaccination
44
natural vs artificial passive immunity
Naturally acquired passive immunity
* transfer of IgG antibodies from mother to
fetus
- Artificially acquired passive immunity
* Administration of Ab’s via vaccination
45
cell mediated immunity occurs when
T lymphocytes bind directly to targets
*this takes a few days
46
when are t cells activated?
T cells are activated for foreign attack only
when it is on the surface of a cell that
carries foreign and self antigens
47
T cells Learn to recognize foreign antigens only in
combination with a person’s own self-antigens
major histocompatibility complex
48
what do Tc cells release during cell mediated attacks?
they release toxins that destroy targeted cells
49
what are the 3 main types of T cells?
1= CD8+ Tc cells
2= CD4+ Th cells
3=CD4+CD25+ Treg cells (Regulatory T cells or Tregs)
50
CD8+, Tc cells
-killer cytotoxic cells
-co receptors= CD8
-kill victim by releasing perforin
-can also kill by releasing granzymes
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CD4+; Th cells
-mostly helper T cells
-Th 1and Th2
-modulates activities of other immune cells
-secretes chemicals that amplify activity of other T cells
*B cell growth factor
*T cell growth factor
*macrophage migration inhibition factor
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Th 1 vs Th 2 cells
Th 1= cell mediated response
Th 2=antibody mediated repsonse
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CD4+CD25+ Treg cells
-have CD4 and CD25 receptors
-supress immune responses
-have large amounts of Foxp3
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dendritic cells
antigen presenting cells; Occur in nearly every tissue, but are
dense in skin, lung, and digestive tissue
55
antigen presentation
-Phagocytosis of the microbe occurs.
- The raw antigen is broken down by lysosomes.
- Antigen binds to an MHC molecule synthesized by cell.
- Antigen and MHC molecule are presented on the outer
surface of the macrophage’s plasma membrane.
* The cell is now an Antigen Presenting Cell
- Passing T lymphocytes bind to Antigen-MHC complex
- Antigen-presenting macrophages secrete cytokines
- Acts in a paracrine manner on adjacent B cells, Cytotoxic T cells,
and NK cells
56
biochemical blueprint (or SSN)
our exact pattern of MHC molecules
57
two classes of MHC molecules
-Class I MHC: Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) can only
respond to foreign antigens when in
association with MHC I
* All nucleated cells possesses MHC-I
-Class II MHC: Recognized by Helper T cells
(CD4+) and are found only on APC’s
* B-cells
* Macrophages
* Dendritic cells
58
self tolerance
refers to preventing the immune system from attacking the person’s own tissues
59
mechanisms involved in self tolerance
-clonal deletion
-clonal anergy= "turns off t cell"
-active suppression by regulatory T cells
-receptor editing
-immunulogical ignorance
60
autoimmune diseases
examples of causes:
-normal self antigens may be modified
-exposure of normally inaccessible self antigens
-Exposure of the immune system to a foreign antigen structurally identical to a self-antigen
-may be related to pregnancy
61
tumor
Clone of cells identical to original mutated cell
* Benign tumor
- Does not infiltrate surrounding tissues
* Malignant tumor
- Invasive and cancerous
- Cells tend to metastasize
- May spread throughout body and cannot be removed
surgically
62
two general ways of immune diseases
1. Immunodeficiency diseases
* Too little immune response
* Examples
- severe combined immunodeficiency (SIDS)
- AIDS
2. Inappropriate immune attacks
* Too much or mistargeted immune response
* Categories of inappropriate attacks
- Autoimmune responses
- Immune complex diseases
- Allergies
63
categories of allergic responses
- Immediate hypersensitivity
- Delayed hypersensitivity
* Memory TH1 cells cause tissue damage by
macrophages
* Can take time to show symptoms
* Can last for hours or days
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chemical mediators of immediate hypersensitivity
-histamine
-slow reactive substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A)
-eosinophil chemotactic factor
65
4 cell types of epidermis
1=melanocytes
2=keratinocytes- ILK 1
3=Langerhans cells- specific immunity by presenting antigen to help T cells
4=Granstein cells- suppress skin activated immune response
66
digestive system immunity
Antimicrobial salivary enzyme
* Destructive acidic gastric secretions
* Gut-associated lymphoid tissue
* Harmless resident colonic secretions
67
urogenital system immunity
Destructive acidic and particle-entrapping mucus
secretions
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respiratory system immunity
Alveolar macrophage activity
* Secretion of sticky mucus that traps debris which is swept
out by ciliary action
* Nasal hairs filter out large inspired particles
* Reflex cough and sneeze mechanisms expel irritant
materials from trachea and nose
* Tonsils and adenoids defend immunologically
69
external respiration
Refers to sequence of events involved in the
exchange of O2 and CO2 between the external
environment and the cells of the body
70
4 steps of external respiration
* Ventilation – movement of air into and out of the lungs
* O2 and CO2 are exchanged between air in alveoli and
blood within the pulmonary capillaries by means of
diffusion
* Blood transports O2 and CO2 between lungs and tissues
* O2 and CO2 are exchanged between tissues and blood
by process of diffusion across systemic (tissue)
capillaries
71
internal respiration
Refers to metabolic processes carried
out within & around the mitochondria,
which use O2 and produce CO2, while
deriving energy from nutrient
molecules
72
respiratory quotient (RQ)
* Ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed
* Varies depending on foodstuff consumed
73
non respiratory functions of respiratory system
* Route for water loss and heat elimination
* Enhances venous return
* Helps maintain normal acid-base balance
* Enables speech and other vocalizations
* Defends against inhaled foreign matter
* Removes, modifies, activates, or inactivates
various materials passing through the
pulmonary circulation
* Nose serves as the organ of olfaction
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pores of kohn
permit airflow between adjacent
alveoli (collateral ventilation)
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flattened type 1 of alveolar cells
- Pulmonary capillaries encircle each alveolus
- Capillary walls only one cell thick
- Alveolar capillary membrane – 0.5 mm thick.
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type 2 alveolar cells
secrete pulmonary surfactant
- Phospholipoprotein that facilitates lung expansion
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Three different pressure considerations
important in ventilation
-Atmospheric (barometric) pressure
* At sealevel, 760 mm Hg
- Intra-alveolar pressure (intrapulmonary
pressure)
* varies with respiration.
- Intrapleural pressure (intrathoracic
pressure)
* Usually less than atmospheric, around 756 mm Hg
78
intrapleural pressure when thoracic cavity expands
When the thoracic cavity expands, the intrapleural pressure drops to 754 mm Hg due to the highly stretched lungs pulling a little bit away from the thoracic wall.
THIS IS HOW AIR ENTERS LUNGS
79
How does forced expiration occur?
Forced expiration can occur by contraction of
expiratory muscles
- Abdominal wall muscles
- Internal intercostal muscles
80
bronchiole innervation functions
-Parasympathetic: smooth muscle contraction, bronchoconstriction
- Sympathetic: smooth muscle relaxation, bronchodilation
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emphysema
A disease in which the alveoli are damaged or have been overstretched, making it difficult to
exhale completely.
- Damage to the walls of the alveoli traps air in the
lungs and diminishes overall surface area
82
elastic recoil
-Refers to how readily the lungs rebound
after having been inflated
* Responsible for lungs returning to their pre-
inspiratory volume when inspiratory
muscles relax at end of inspiration
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two factors that effect elastic recoil
- Highly elastic connective tissue in the lungs (elastin).
- Alveolar surface tension
84
pulmonary fibrosis
normal lung tissue is
replaced with scar forming fibrous
connective tissue.
- Caused by chronically breathing in asbestos
or other similar irritants
85
pressure volume curve
-tests for lung compliance
For each change in pressure,
lungs should respond in
volume depending upon
compliance
Can be done by
simultaneously measuring
changes in lung volume
using a spirometer and
changes in pleural pressure
using a pressure gauge
86
normal breathing requires how much of total NRG expenditure?
3%
87
situations where work of breathing is increased
1=when pulmonary compliance is decreased
2=when airway resistance is increased
3=when elastic recoil is decreased
4=when there is a need for increased ventilation
88
pulmonary surfactant
-phospholipids and proteins secreted by type 2 alveolar cells
-lowers surface tension by interspersing between water molecules
-increases pulmonary compliance
-reduces lung tendency to recoil
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important measurements in spirometry test
Particularly important measurements include
Vital Capacity (VC) and Forced Vital Capacity
(FVC)
90
2 general lung dysfunction categories
- Obstructive lung disease
* Difficulty emptying the lungs
- Restrictive lung disease
* Difficulty in filling lungs
91
minute ventilation
Volume of air breathed in and out in
one minute.
92
pulmonary ventilation
tidal volume x respiratory rate
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average pulmonary ventilation
- Average tidal volume 500 mL/breath
- Average respiration rate: 12 breaths/min
94
alveolar ventilation
More important than pulmonary ventilation
- Volume of air exchanged between the atmosphere
and the alveoli per minute
95
calculating alveolar ventilation
Alveolar ventilation = (tidal volume – dead space) x respiratory
rate
96
alveolar dead space
not all alveoli are equally
ventilated. Those not involved in exchange =
dead space
97
partial pressure gradient in pulmonary system
- Deoxygenated blood returning from the body has
HIGH PCO2 (46) compared to air entering alveoli
(40), causing CO2 to flow into lungs.
- Returning blood from the body also has a LOW PO2
(40) compared with air in the lungs (100), causing
O2 to flow into the pulmonary capillaries
98
partial pressure gradient in systemic system
-By equilibration in the alveoli, the systemic
capillary PO2 is high (100) compared to the PO2 in
tissue cells (40), causing O2 to flow into the
tissues.
- The PCO2 in the systemic capillaries is low (40)
compared to the PCO2 of the tissue cells (46),
causing CO2 to flow from tissues into the blood
99
law of mass action
* When blood PO2 is high (pulmonary capillaries),
equation is driven to right side.
* When blood PO2 is low (systemic capillaries), equation
is driven to left side.
100
main factor
determining the %Hb saturation
hb-hemoglobin
partial pressure of oxygen
* The percent saturation is high where the
partial pressure of oxygen is high (lungs).
* The percent saturation is low where the
partial pressure of oxygen is low
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