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PCOM Specific > Physio > Flashcards

Physio Flashcards

1
Q

2 kinds of cells in nervous system

A

neurons and glia

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2
Q

neurons contain

A

membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum

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3
Q

motor neuron

A

soma is in spinal cord, received excitation from other neurons, conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle

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4
Q

sensory neuron

A

specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation

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5
Q

components of all neurons

A

dendrites, soma/cell body, axon, presynaptic terminals

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6
Q

afferent axon

A

refers to bringing information into a structure

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7
Q

Efferent axon

A

refers to carrying information away from a structure

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8
Q

interneurons

A

those who dendrites and axons are completely contained within a single structure

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9
Q

Blood-brain barrier

A

mechanisms that surrounds the brain and blocks most chemicals from entering

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10
Q

active transport

A

protein-mediated process that expends energy to pump chemicals from the blood into the brain

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11
Q

nerve impulse

A

electrical message that is transmitted down the axon of a neuron

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12
Q

resting potential of the neuron

A

○ Refers to state of neuron prior to sending of a nerve impulse
○ Messages in a neuron develop from disturbances of the resting potential
○ At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical gradient known as polarization (difference in electrical charge inside and outside of cell)

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13
Q

membrane at rest

A

sodium channels are closed and potassium channels are partially closed

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14
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

○ Pumps 3 sodium ions out of cells while drawing 2 potassium ions into cell
○ Helps to maintain the electrical gradient

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15
Q

electrical gradient

A

tends to pull potassium ions into cells (slowly leak out carrying positive charge)

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16
Q

action potential

A

○ Resting potential remains stable until neuron is stimulated
○ Hyperpolarization - increasing the polarization (or difference between electrical charge of 2 places)
○ Depolarization - decreasing the polarization towards zero
○ Threshold of excitation - level above which any stimulation produces a massive depolarization, triggers a nerve impulse or action potential
○ After action potential occurs, sodium channels are quickly closed → neuron returned to resting state by opening of potassium channels → sodium pump later restores the original distribution of ions → after action potential, neuron has a refractory period (neuron resists production of another action potential): absolute refractory period = first part where membrane cannot produce action potential; relative refractory period = second part where it takes stronger than usual stimulus to trigger an action potential

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17
Q

saltatory conduction

A

“jumping” of action potential from node to node (conserves energy)
○ MS - myelin sheath destroyed

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18
Q

important rules about reflexes

A

○ Reflexes slower than conduction along an axon
○ Several weak stimuli present at slightly different times/locations produce a stronger reflex than single stimulus
○ As one set of muscles become excited, another set relaxes

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19
Q

temporal summation

A

repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when single stimuli too weak

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20
Q

spatial summation

A

synaptic input from several locations can have cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse

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21
Q

epsp

A

graded potential that decays over time and space
○ Presynaptic neuron - neuron that delivers synaptic transmission
○ Postsynaptic neuron - neuron that receives the message

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22
Q

isps

A

○ Temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane

○ Serves as active “brake” that suppresses excitation

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23
Q

ionotropic effects

A

occurs when neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and immediately opens ion channels (most occur quickly and short lasting, rely on glutamate or GABA)

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24
Q

metabotropic effects

A

occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiate a sequence of slower and longer lasting metabolic reactions (use many neurotransmitters) - taste, smell, pain

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25
Q

reuptake

A

presynaptic neuron takes up most of the neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses them

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26
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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27
Q

spinal cord

A

Spinal cord - communicates with sense organs and muscles, except those of the head

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28
Q

2 types of matter

A

grey and white

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29
Q

PNS

A

connect brain and spinal cord to rest of body

- somatic and autonomic nervous

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30
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

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31
Q

sympathetic

A

network of nerves that prepares organs for rigorous activity (mostly uses norepinephrine)

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32
Q

parasympathetic

A

facilitates vegetative and non emergency responses (mostly release acetylcholine)

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33
Q

forebrain parts

A

limbic system, thalamus, basal ganglia, pituitary gland

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34
Q

hypothalamus

A

assoc. w/ motivated behaviors - eating, drinking sex

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35
Q

hippocampus

A

storing certain types of memory such as individual events

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36
Q

cerebral cortex

A

outer surface

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37
Q

amygdala

A

processing of emotions

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38
Q

thalamus

A

relay station from sensory organs, most sensory info goes here first, processes it, and sends output to cerebral cortex

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39
Q

basal ganglia

A

planning of motor movement, aspects of memory & emotional expression, attention, language, planning, & other cognitive functions

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40
Q

pituitary gland

A

in response to message from hypothalamus, it synthesizes hormones that blood carries to organs throughout the body

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41
Q

midbrain parts

A

Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, substantia nigra

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42
Q

hindbrain parts

A

medulla, pons, cerebellum

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43
Q

medulla

A

vital reflexes (breathing, HR)

44
Q

pons

A

bridge

45
Q

cerebellum

A

regulates motor movement, balance, & coordination

46
Q

four lobes of cerebral cortex

A

occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal

47
Q

occipital lobe

A

primary visual cortex

48
Q

parietal lobe

A

■ Responsible for processing and integrating information about eye, head, and body positions from information sent from muscles and joints)
■ Essential for spatial information and numerical information

49
Q

temporal lobe

A

target for auditory information and essential for processing spoken language
Also responsible for complex aspects of vision, including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviors

50
Q

frontal lobe

A 
prefrontal cortex (integration center for all sensory information) and precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex - control of fine motor movement)
■	Prefrontal cortex - higher functions (abstract thinking and planning, working memory)
51
Q

mutation

A

heritable change in DNA molecule

52
Q

Microduplication/microdeletion

A

part of chromosome that might appear once might appear twice or not at all

53
Q

epigenetics

A

field that is concerned with changes in gene expression without the modification of the DNA sequence

54
Q

heritability

A

refers to how much characteristics depend on genetic differences (strong environmental influences may cause genetic influences to have less of an effect)

55
Q

genes affect behavior

A

○ Do not directly produce behaviors but produce proteins that increase probability that a behavior will develop under certain circumstances

56
Q

evolution

A

change in frequency of various genes in a population over generations

57
Q

evolutionary psychology

A

functional and evolutionary explanations of how behaviors evolved
● Development of neurons in the brain involves the following processes

58
Q

proliferation

A

production of new cells/neurons in the brain primarily occurring early in life

59
Q

mitigation

A

movement of newly formed neurons and glia to their eventual locations

60
Q

differentiation

A

forming of the axon and dendrites that gives the neuron its distinctive shape

61
Q

myelination

A

process by which glia produce the fatty sheath that covers the axons of some neurons

62
Q

synaptogenesis

A

final stage, formation of synapses between neurons (occurs throughout life as neurons are constantly forming new connections and discarding old ones, but this slows later in life)

63
Q

neurotropins

A

chemicals that promote survival and activity of neurons

64
Q

apoptosis

A

preprogrammed mechanism of cell death that happens to axons not exposed to neurotropins

65
Q

phantom limb (continuation of sensation of an amputated body part)

A

○ Cortex reorganized itself after the amputation of a body part by becoming responsive to other part of the body

66
Q

amplitude

A

refers to intensity of sound wave

67
Q

frequency

A

number of compressions per second and is measured in hertz (related to pitch)

68
Q

timbre

A

tone/quality complexity

69
Q

outer ear

A

■ Responsible for altering the reflection of sound waves into the middle ear from outer ear
■ Helping us to locate source of a sound

70
Q

middle ear

A

■ Ear drum connects to tiny bones that transform waves into stronger waves that transmits waves through the viscous fluid of the inner ear

71
Q

inner ear

A

■ Hair cells are auditory receptors that when displaced by vibrations in fluid of cochlea, excite cells of auditory nerve

72
Q

place theory

A

each area along basilar membrane has hair cells sensitive to only one specific frequency of sound wave

73
Q

frequency theory

A

basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sound and causes auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at same frequency

74
Q

primary auditory cortex

A

destination for most information from auditory system
○ Not necessary for hearing but for processing the information
○ Provides a tonotopic map - cells are more responsive to preferred tones

75
Q

hearing loss

A

○ Conductive or middle ear deafness

○ Nerve deafness or inner ear deafness

76
Q

vestibular sense

A

system that detects position and movement of head - directs compensatory movement of the eye and help maintain balance (vestibular organ is in the ear)

77
Q

somatosensation

A

sensation of the body and its movements

78
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

various areas of somatosensory thalamus send impulses to different areas of the somatosensory cortex located in the parietal lobe

79
Q

pain

A

prefrontal cortex responds to pain as long as the pain lasts (begins with the least specialized of all receptors, bare nerve endings)

80
Q

gate theory

A

○ Proposes that the spinal cord areas that receive messages from pain receptors also receive input from touch receptors and from axons descending from the brain
■ These other areas that provide input can close the “gates” by releasing endorphins and decrease pain perception
■ Non-pain stimuli around it can modify the intensity of the pain

81
Q

adaptation

A

reduced perception of a stimuli due to the fatigue of receptors

82
Q

cross-adaptation

A

reduced response to one stimuli after exposure to another

83
Q

olfaction

A

○ Detection and recognition of chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose
○ Axons from olfactory receptors (replaced approx. every month) carry information to the olfactory bulb - coding in the brain is determined by which part of olfactory bulb is excited (olfactory bulb sends axons to cerebral cortex where messages are coded by location)

84
Q

synesthesia

A

experience of one sense in response to stimulation of a different sense (seeing a number or letter as a specific color)

85
Q

smooth muscles

A

control digestive system and other organs

86
Q

skeletal muscles/striated muscles

A

control movement of body in relation to environment

87
Q

fast twitch

A

fibers produce fast contractions but fatigue rapidly

88
Q

slow twitch

A

fibers produce less vigorous contraction without fatigue

89
Q

cardiac muscles

A

heart muscles that have properties of skeletal and smooth muscles

90
Q

antagonistic muscles

A

movement requires the alternating contraction of opposing sets of muscles

91
Q

posterior parietal cortex

A

keeps track of position of body relative to the world

92
Q

premotor cortex

A

active during preparation for movement

93
Q

supplementary motor cortex

A

organizes rapid sequence of movements in a specific order

94
Q

mirror neurons

A

active during both preparation of a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or similar movement

95
Q

cerebellum

A

structure in brain often associated with balance and coordination, important for establishment of new motor programs, critical for certain aspects of attention such as shifting attention and attend to visual stimuli

96
Q

basal ganglia

A

responsible for initiating an action not guided by a stimulus
learning new motor skills, organizing sequences of movement, new habits, and automatic behaviors

97
Q

Parkinsons

A

characterized by muscle tremors, rigidity, slow movements, and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity
○ Symptoms also include depression, memory and reasoning deficits, loss of olfaction, and other cognitive deficits
○ L-dopa is primary treatment

98
Q

Huntington’s

A

neurological disease characterized by various motor symptoms
○ Initial motor symptoms - arm jerks and facial twitches → progress to tremors that affect walking, speech, and other voluntary movements
○ Also psychological disorders - depression, memory impairment, poor judgment, drug abuse, hallucination/delusions

99
Q

Circadian rhythm

A

○ Keeps our internal workings in phase with outside world
○ Human circadian clock generates a rhythm slightly longer than 24 hours when it has no external cue to set it
○ Sometimes necessary to reset it
○ Zeitgeber “time giver” - stimulus that resets circadian rhythm (sunlight, tides, exercise, meals, temperature of environment)

100
Q

mechanisms of biological clock

A

○ The suprachiasmatic nucleus - main control center of circadian rhythms of sleep and temperature
○ Genes that produce certain proteins
○ Melatonin levels

101
Q

sleep stages

A

○ 1-4 → after an hour you cycle back through stages from 4, 3, 2, & REM → sequence repeats with each cycle lasting approx. 90 minutes
○ Stages 3 & 4 predominate early (length decreases)
○ REM sleep is predominate later (length increases)
○ During REM sleep: activity increases in pons and limbic system and decreases in primary visual cortex, motor cortex, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

102
Q

brain function in REM

A

○ Cells in pons sends messages to spinal cord which inhibits motor neurons that control body’s large muscles (prevents motor movement during REM sleep)
○ REM also regulated by serotonin and acetylcholine

103
Q

functions of sleep

A

○ Resting muscles
○ Decreasing metabolism
○ Performing cellular maintenance in neurons
○ Reorganizing synapses
○ Strengthening memories (patterns of activity in hippocampus during learning were similar to those shown during sleep)
■ During REM - brain may discard useless connections and learned motor skills may be consolidated

104
Q

activation-synthesis hypothesis

A

suggests that dreams begin with spontaneous activity in pons, which activates many parts of the cortex

105
Q

clinico-anatomical hypothesis

A

dreams begin with arousing stimuli that are generated within the brain (stimulation is combined with recent memories and information from the senses) - brain is processing information it had all day but just in a less organized way
■ Activity is high in the hypothalamus and amygdala - accounts for the emotional and motivational content of dreams

106
Q

drug agonists

A

○ Attach to receptor sites - produce EPSPs or IPSPs
○ Attach to receptor sites - increase effect of neurotransmitters
○ Block enzymatic degradation or reuptake
○ Enhance release of neurotransmitter
○ Increase amount of neurotransmitters stored in vesicles (synthesis increased; reuptake degrading enzymes can be destroyed)
○ Prevent inhibition of continued neurotransmitter release by binding to autoreceptors

107
Q

drug antagonists

A

○ Block activity of neurotransmitter
■ False transmitters can attach to receptor sites without having effect of neurotransmitter
■ Decrease synthesis
■ Produce loss of neurotransmitter from vesicles
■ Inhibit release of neurotransmitter

PCOM Specific (11 decks)

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