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Physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
Selectively permeable to ions
Can anchor cytoskeleton

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2
Q

Acid base balance - buffers

A

Bicarbinate
Proteins - 2/3 of the buffering in the blood and most within cells
Phosphate

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3
Q

Organs of acid base balance

A

Brain: sense elevation of CO2 via pH sensation at the respiratory centre in the brainstem
Lungs: ensure removal of carbonic acid (as CO2)
Kidneys: removal of H+ ions and regeneration of HCO3- due to presence of carbonic anhydrase

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4
Q

Henderson-Hasselbach equation

A

pH= 6.1 + log (HCO3/H2CO3)

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5
Q

Anabolism

A

constructive metabolic process in which a cell uses energy to construct molecules such as enzymes and nucleic acids

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6
Q

Catabolism

A

The purpose of catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions

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7
Q

Standard processes of Aerobic respiration

A 
Glycolysis
Pyruvate oxidation
Citric acid cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation via electron transport chain
Production of 38ATP from 1 glucose
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8
Q

Glycolysis

A

In the cytosol of cells
Substrates: Glucose, NAD, ADP and O2
Products: Pyruvate, NADH, ATP

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9
Q

Pyruvate oxidation

A

Cytosol of cells
Substrates: Pyruvate, CoA and NAD
Products: Acetyl-CoA, NADH and CO2

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10
Q

Citric acid cycle

A

Mitochondrial
Substrates: Acetyl-CoA, NAD, FAD, H2O and ADP
Products: CoA, NADH, FADH2, H, ATP, CO2

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11
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

Mitochondrial via electron transport chain
Substrates: ADP, NADH FADH2 and O2
Products: ATP, NAD, FAD and H2O

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12
Q

Substrates for aerobic respiration

A

Fatty acids

Amino acids

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13
Q

Fatty acid metabolism

A

Lipolysis - triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol
Fatty acids in metabolising cells via beta oxidation to Acetyl-CoA
Glycerol in liver converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis

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14
Q

Amino acids

A

Converted to different substrates in the citric acid cycle or pyruvate and acetyl-CoA

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15
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Lactic acid fermentation in cell cytoplasm
Anoxic regeneration of NAD+ as a source of energy
Pyruvate to lactate producing ATP and regenerating NAD for glycolysis
Production of 2 ATP from 1 glucose

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16
Q

Mechanisms of capillary exchange

A

Diffusion
Transcytosis
Bulk flow

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17
Q

Diffusion

A

Passage of molecules from high concentration to low concentration

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18
Q

Transcytosis

A

Large lipid insoluble substances are endocytosed, cross the membrane and then exocytosed

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19
Q

Bulk flow

A

Movement dependent on pressure and the four Starling forces

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20
Q

Starling forces

A

Oncotic or colloid osmotic pressure in the capillary
Oncotic or colloid osmotic pressure in the interstitium
Hydrostatic pressure in the capillary
Hydrostatic pressure in the interstitium

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21
Q

Oncotic pressure

A

A form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins either in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid

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22
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

A force generated by the pressure of fluid on the capillary walls either by the blood plasma or interstitial fluid

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23
Q

Osmolarity

A

Essentially the amount of solute in the solvent (water)
The higher the osmolarity, the more solute there is and the relative “concentration” of the water is low. The water mores from high concentration to low (area of low osmolarity to low)

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24
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Series of vessels andnodes that collect and filter excess tissue fluid (lymph), beforereturning it to the venous circulation

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25
Functions of the spleen
Malpighian corpuscles § Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths rich in T-lymphocytes and macrophages § Lymphoid follicles rich in naïve B-lymphocytes Cords § Removal of old, damaged and dead red cells, antigens and opsonised microorganisms which are phagocytosed by macrophages § Sequestration of platelets § Storage of red cells
26
Normal values of CSF
``` Protein § 15-45 Glucose § 5-8 (2/3 Blood glucose) Mononuclear cells § 0-5 Opening pressure § 7-18 cmH2O ```
27
Normal value of pleural fluid
Protein Fluid/serum <0.5 <30 g/l LDH Fluid/serum <0.6
28
Pleural fluid volume, production and absorption
* Small volume (0.3ml/kg with turnover 0.15ml/kg/h) * Produced by the parietal pleura in less dependent areas and absorbed by the parietal pleural lymphatics in the more dependant areas, on the diaphragmatic surface and the mediastinal regions * The pleural mesothelial cells have oligolamellar surfactant molecules of a negative charge and so repulse each other assuring lubrication * Pleural fluid acts to both lubricate and the negative pressure allows the chest wall and lungs to move in synchrony
29
Pericardium
• Serosal cavity • Two anatomical structures closely connected ○ external sac of fibrous pericardium ○ Internal sac of serous pericardium • Product of ultrafiltration • Drained by lymphatic capillary bed mainly and mesothelial cells lining the membrane may also have a role • It provides lubrication during heart beating by oligolamellar surface-active phospholipid surfactant molecules of a negative charge and so repulse each other assuring lubrication
30
Peritoneal fluid
* An ultrafiltrate of plasma * A lubricant around abdominal organs and allows the diffusion of electrolytes and other substances to and from the serosal surfaces of the abdominal cavity * Produced by mesothelial cells in the membrane * Absorbed by capillary absorption
31
Neurotransmitters
Endogenous chemicals that enable communication within the nervous system and between the nervous system and the rest of the body
32
Dopamine
Monoamine D1, D2-like and TAAR receptors (all metabotropic G-protein) Excitatory or inhibitory Roles in exectutive function, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, reward, lactation, sexual gratification and nausea
33
Noradrenaline class
Catecholamine
34
Noradrenaline in the brain
attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and learning
35
Noradrenaline receptors
``` alpha1 alpha2 beta1 beta2 beta3 ```
36
Noradrenaline receptors in the eye
Dilator pupillae - alpha1 Superior tarsal muscle (smooth muscle attached to levator palpebrae superioris) - alpha1 Ciliary epithelium - alpha2 - decreases aqueous humor production, beta2 - increases aqueous humor production
37
Noradrenaline receptors in the Salivary glands
Stimulates mucus secretion - alpha1
38
Noradrenaline receptors in the lungs
Bronchial muscle - relaxation - beta2
39
Noradrenaline receptors in the Heart
+ chronotropy - SA node - beta1 + dromotropy - AV node - beta1 + inotropy - Atria and ventricles (via increased intracellular Ca) - beta1
40
Noradrenaline receptors in the Digestive tract
Decreased motility - a1, a2, b2 Inhibited secretions - a2 Contraction of sphincters - a1
41
Noradrenaline receptors in the liver
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis - a1, b2
42
Noradrenaline receptors in the gallbladder and ducts
relaxation - b2
43
Noradrenaline receptors in the pancreas
Inhibits acinar secretion - a Inhibits b cell insulin secretion - a2, (during alpha blockade b2 increases secretion) Stimulates a cell glucagon secretion - b2, (during beta blockade a decreases secretion)
44
Noradrenaline receptors in the bladder
``` □ Bladder neck, prostate and urethral contraction - a1 Detrusor relaxation (small effect) - b ```
45
Noradrenaline receptors in the vas deferens and seminal vesicles
Ejaculation - a1
46
Noradrenaline receptors in the uterus
Nonpregnant - relaxation - b2 | Pregnant - contraction - a1
47
Noradrenaline receptors in the Large arteries, arterioles, cutaneous and large (not muscular) veins
Vasoconstriction - a1, a2 (a2 present both postjunction, causing vasocontriction but mainly prejunctional with negative feedback on noradrenaline release)
48
Noradrenaline receptors in brown adipose tissues
Non-shivering Thermogenesis via decoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and production of heat rather than ATP - b1,2 and 3, a1 and 2
49
Noradrenaline receptors in the immune system
Bone marrow, Thymus, Lymph nodes and Spleen | Modulates immune responses mainly via b2
50
Noradrenaline receptors in the kidneys
Increased Renin secretion - b1 Decreased renal blood flow - a1 Increased renal tubular sodium absorption - a1
51
Noradrenaline receptors in the sweat glands
Piloerection - a1
52
Histamine neurons location
Histaminergic neurons have cell bodies in the tuberomammiliary nucleus in the posterior hypothalamus Project to cerebral cortex, olfactory bulb, thalamus and spinal cord
53
Histamine neurotransmitter function
Thought to influence arousal and sleep, learning, sexual behavour, regulation of anterior pituatary hormones, blood pressure, thirst and pain thresholds
54
Serotonin alt name
5-hydroxytryptamine
55
Serotonin receptors
7 5-HT receptors Most metabotropic G-protein coupled 5-HT3 ionotropic
56
Serotonin functions
``` Sleep Mood Pain Circadian rhythms Vomiting ```
57
Glutamate nature
Most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord (75% of excitatory transmission in the brain) Excitatory
58
Glutamate receptors
NMDA AMPA Kainate Metabotropic glutamate receptors
59
Glutamate functions
learning and memory, particularly in the process of long-term potentiation (long-term facilitation of transmission) as well as motor co-ordination
60
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) origin
Synthesized from glutamate
61
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) nature
Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain
62
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptors
GABA A - ionotropic | GABA B - metabotropic
63
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) functions
regulating neuronal activity, anxiety and sleep
64
Glycine nature
Used at the majority of inhibitory synapses in the ventral spinal cord and brainstem Also has an excitatory role within the CNS as it is a co-agonist at glutamatergic NMDA receptors
65
Glycine receptors
Ionotropic
66
Glycine functions
motor and sensory functions, such as reciprocal inhibition of antagonistic muscles in spinal reflexes
67
Aspartate
Excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain | Ionotropic
68
D-serine
Co-agonist at NMDA receptors
69
Opioid peptides
enkephalins, endorphins, heptapeptide, octapeptide
70
Opioid peptides receptors
All metabotropic mu kappa delta
71
mu opioid receptors functions
``` Stress responses in the brain . Analgesic . Respiratory depression . Euphoria . Sedation . Increased secretion of prolactin and growth hormone . Miosis Decrease GI motility ```
72
kappa opioid receptor functions
``` Stress responses in the brain . Analgesic . Diuresis . Sedation . Miosis . Dysphoria (unease) ```
73
delta opioid receptor functions
Stress responses in the brain | . Analgesic
74
Somatostatin
In the brain activates a hyperpolarising K+ current and inhibiting Ca2+ influx Motor activity and cognitive function
75
Oxytocin function in the brain
Regulation of breast feeding and childbirth Sexual arousal Bonding Maternal behavour Foetal actions (from maternal circulation) to protect from hypoxic damage at birth
76
Vasopressin receptors in the brain
V1a V1b V2
77
Function of Vasopressin in the brain
Memory retrieval Learning Circadian time keeping
78
Acetylcholine nature
Acts in the central and peripheral nervous system (main neurotransmitter in the peripheral) Mostly excitatory
79
Acetylcholine receptors
Nicotinic receptors - ionotropic | Muscarinic receptors - metabotropic - in PNS is autonomic
80
Nicotinic receptors
On postsynaptic membrane of the autonomic ganglia (sympathetic and parasympathetic) On postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction In the brain - affect memory
81
Muscarinic receptors in the brain
Learning
82
Muscarinic receptors in the eyes
Stimulates contraction of the circular muscle of the pupil
83
Muscarinic receptors in the salivary gland
Stimulates watery secretion
84
Muscarinic receptors in the heart
muscle - -ve inotropy | AV and SA nodes - -ve chronotropy and -ve dromotropy
85
Muscarinic receptors in the lung
Bronchoconstriction | Stimulates secretion
86
Muscarinic receptors in the digestive tract
Increased motility Stimulates secretions Relaxes sphincters
87
Muscarinic receptors in the liver
Increased glycogen synthesis | Reduced gluconeogenesis
88
Muscarinic receptors in the gallbladder
Stimulates contraction
89
Muscarinic receptors in the pancreas
Stimulates secretion of both endocrine and exocrine glands
90
Muscarinic receptors in the adrenal gland
Stimulate release of Adrenaline as part of the sympathetic nervous system
91
Muscarinic receptors in the bladder
Contraction of detrusor | Relaxation of sphincter
92
Muscarinic receptors in the penis
Vasodilation leading to erection
93
Muscarinic receptors in the Sweat glands
Stimulates secretion (both sympathetic and parasympathetic)
94
Adenosine receptors
A1, A2A, A2B, A3
95
Adenosine functions
Brain - Sleep regulating, Modulates hearing Heart (converted in the interstitium not neuronal) Coronary vasodilation - Negative chronotrope, Negative dromotrope
96
Nitric oxide in the brain
Long term depression and potentiation

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