Physiology Flashcards
(511 cards)
1
Q
How do the body’s organs develop?
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2
Q
How do organs differ from body systems?
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3
Q
What is homeostasis?
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4
Q
How does the body exert control over its physiological systems?
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5
Q
What is positive feedback?
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6
Q
Describe the basic layout of a cell
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7
Q
Describe the composition of the cell nucleus
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8
Q
What are the organelles? Describe the major ones
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9
Q
What is a chromosome?
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10
Q
What is DNA?
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11
Q
What is RNA? How does it differ from DNA?
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12
Q
What is a codon?
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13
Q
What are the modes of Mendelian inheritance?
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14
Q
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
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15
Q
What structures are found within the cell membrane?
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16
Q
What are the functions of transmembrane proteins?
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17
Q
By what means are substances transported across the cell membrane?
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18
Q
What is a catalyst?
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19
Q
What are the main features of an enzyme?
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20
Q
How does an enzyme work?
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21
Q
What types of enzyme are there?
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22
Q
What is meant by the terms cofactor and coenzyme?
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23
Q
What are the components and functions of the upper respiratory tract?
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24
Q
How does the upper airway remain patent during breathing?
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25
What happens to the upper airway during sleep?
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26
What is obstructive sleep apnoea?
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27
What are the functions of the lung?
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28
Describe the functional anatomy of the lower airways
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29
Which cell types are found in the alveolus?
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30
What is the alveolar capillary barrier?
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31
How does the lung inflate and deflate during tidal breathing?
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32
What are the non-respiratory functions of the lung?
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33
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
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34
How do the body's oxygen stores compare with its consumption of oxygen?
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35
Describe the structure of a red blood cell
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36
What is haemoglobin?
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37
What is co-operative binding?
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38
What is the OHDC?
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39
What forms of Hb are there?
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40
How does the single point mutation cause clinical disease in sickle cell disease?
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41
What is he clinical significance of MetHb?
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42
What is the pathophysiology of CO poisoning?
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43
What are the mechanisms of cyanide toxicity?
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44
What is myoglobin?
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45
How does CO2 production and storage compare with that of oxygen?
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46
How is CO2 transported in the circulation?
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47
What is the Haldane effect?
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48
What is the Bohr effect?
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49
What are the principal features of the carbon dioxide dissociation curve?
A
50
Which factors affect the rate of diffusion across a biological membrane?
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51
How is the lung alveolus designed for gas exchange?
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52
How do diffusion of oxygen and CO2 compare in the lungs?
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53
How does the diffusion of O2 compare with that of other gases?
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54
How is transfer of oxygen across the alveolar-capillary membrane limited?
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55
What is meant by 'lung diffusion capacity'?
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56
What is lung 'dead space'?
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57
What are the different types of dead space?
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58
What factors affect anatomical dead space?
| How is it measured?
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59
What factors affect alveolar dead space?
| How is it measured?
A
60
What is dead space ventilation?
| How is it different from minute ventilation?
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61
How are alveolar ventilation and CO2 tension related?
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62
What is Fowler's Method?
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63
What is the Bohr method for dead space measurement?
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64
What is the difference between a lung volume and capacity?
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65
What is the importance of the FRC?
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66
What factors affect FRC?
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67
How can lung volumes and capacities be measured?
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68
What is the closing capacity?
| How is it measured?
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69
What are the uses of pulmonary function tests?
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70
What variables does spirometry measure?
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71
How are FEV1, FVC and PEFR measured?
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72
What is an expiratory flow-volume curve?
| What is it used for clinically?
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73
Explain the shape of the forced expiratory flow-volume curve
A
74
What is the difference between a flow-volume curve and a flow-volume loop?
A
75
What is meant by the term hypoxia?
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76
What are the causes of hypoxaemic hypoxia?
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77
How does hypoventilation cause hypoxaemia?
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78
Is diffusion limitation an important cause of hypoxaemia?
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79
What is meant by shunt?
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80
Contrast shunt and V-Q mismatch?
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81
What happens to PaCO2 in the presence of shunt?
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82
What is the shunt equation?
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83
How is the shunt equation derived?
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84
What is the effect of increasing FiO2 in the presence of shunt?
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85
How does gravity affect the lungs?
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86
What is meant by ventilation-perfusion ratio?
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87
What are the causes of abnormal V-Q ratio?
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88
How can hypoxaemia with V/Q mismatch be managed?
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89
Is gravity the only factor affecting V-Q matching?
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90
What are the West Zones of the lung?
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91
How do changes in arterial, venous and alveolar pressures affect lung perfusion?
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92
When does West Zone 1 become clinically significant?
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93
What is meant by 'global oxygen consumption'?
A
94
What is meant by 'global oxygen delivery'?
| What is a typical value for this?
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95
How are DO2 and VO2 related?
| Is there a point at which delivery is inadequate?
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96
What is the AGE?
A
97
What is the RQ?
| Why does it differ for different substrates?
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98
How is the AGE relevant to altitude adaptation?
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99
What is the oxygen cascade?
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100
What is lung compliance?
| Is this the same as respiratory compliance?
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101
What factors affect lung and thoracic cage compliance?
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102
How does surfactant affect lung compliance?
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103
What is the difference between static and dynamic compliance?
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104
What is hysteresis?
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105
How does the static compliance curve explain regional differences in lung ventilation?
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106
What is meant by 'work of breathing'?
A
107
What factors affect airway resistance?
A
108
How can WOB be described graphically?
| How does it change with disease?
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109
How is ventilation controlled?
A
110
What is the ventilatory response to hypoxaemia?
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111
What is the ventilatory response to hypercapnia?
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112
What are the unique features of the pulmonary circulation?
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113
Why can the pressure in the pulmonary circulation be low?
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114
How does PVR compare to SVR?
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115
What factors affect PVR?
A
116
What is the clinical relevance of HPV?
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117
Describe the pressure wave changes during flotation of a PAFC?
A
118
What is Oxygen toxicity?
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119
How does the body mitigate oxidative stress?
A
120
How are reactive oxygen species used by the body?
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121
How much O2 is harmful?
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122
What is the connection between bleomycin and Oxygen toxicity?
A
123
What is meant by 'respiratory failure'?
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124
How may a patient with myasthenia gravis develop respiratory failure?
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125
How do patients with COPD develop hypercapnoea?
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126
How do anaesthetic drugs affect the respiratory system?
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127
How does general anaesthesia affect the lung?
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128
How does general anaesthesia affect post-operative respiratory function?
A
129
What are the functions of the heart?
A
130
Describe the structure of the heart
A
131
What is meant by the term 'functional syncytium'?
A
132
Describe the coronary circulation and venous drainage
A
133
Describe the changes in blood flow to the myocardium over the cardiac cycle
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134
What factors affect coronary blood flow?
A
135
What is the cardiac cycle?
| What are its key events?
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136
What is stroke volume?
| How is it calculated?
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137
Which factors affect cardiac output?
A
138
How does the body regulate CO?
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139
What is the Bowditch Effect?
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140
What is the cardiac index?
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141
How is MAP related to CO?
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142
How may CO be measured?
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143
What is Starling's law of the heart?
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144
What is cardiac failure?
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145
What is compensated heart failure?
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146
What are the clinical consequences of decompensated heart failure?
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147
Describe the left ventricular P-V loop
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148
How does the P-V loop change when preload is increased?
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149
How does the P-V loop change when aflerload is increased?
A
150
How does myocardial contractility change the P-V loop?
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151
How does the LV P-V loop relate to cardiac work?
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152
How do the LV and RV P-V loops compare?
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153
How does O2 extraction in the heart compare to other organs?
A
154
What is meant by the term 'acute coronary syndrome'?
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155
How is an MI diagnosed?
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156
What are typical symptoms of MI?
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157
What is the physiological mechanism for referred cardiac pain?
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158
How is MI classified?
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159
What is the treatment for type 1 MI
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160
What is the difference between type 2 MI and myocardial injury?
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161
What is ischaemic reperfusion injury?
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162
What is ischaemic preconditioning?
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163
What are the functions of the circulation?
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164
What are the constituent parts of the systemic circulation?
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165
What are the main differences between the systemic and pulmonary circulations?
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166
How does blood velocity change throughout the systemic circulation?
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167
Describe the cross-section of an artery
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168
What types of artery are there?
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169
How are vessel radius and resistance to blood flow related?
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170
What are the functions of the arterioles?
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171
What factors are involved in vasoconstriction and dilatation?
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172
How is SVR calculated?
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173
How are SBP, DBP and MAP calculated?
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174
Which factors affect arterial blood pressure?
A
175
What is the Windkessel effect?
A
176
What is the difference between the arterial pressure wave and the blood flow wave?
A
177
Describe the arterial pressure waveform for the aorta
A
178
How does the arterial pressure waveform differ from the aorta in the peripheral arteries?
A
179
What information can be gathered from the arterial pressure waveform?
A
180
What are the roles of the capillaries?
| What are the different types?
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181
How does capillary-tissue exchange occur?
A
182
How do Starling forces determine transmembrane fluid flow?
A
183
Does blood always flow through all the capillary networks?
A
184
What are the functions of the vascular endothelium?
A
185
What are the roles of the venous system?
A
186
How does the structure of a vein differ to that of an artery?
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187
How do venous and arterial compliance compare?
A
188
Which factors determine venous return to the heart?
A
189
How does venous pressure affect resistance to flow?
A
190
What are the key features of the CVP waveform?
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191
What are some examples of pathological CVP waveform variants?
A
192
What is a normal CVP?
| What are causes of abnormal CVP?
A
193
Can CVP be used to guide fluid management?
A
194
Describe the anatomy of the lymphatic system
A
195
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
A
196
Why is it important to maintain a physiological MAP?
A
197
How is MAP regulated?
A
198
Describe the arterial baroreceptor reflex
A
199
What is the Bainbridge reflex?
A
200
What are the cardiovascular consequences of chemoreceptor activation?
A
201
Outline the physiological changes that occur following haemorrhage
A
202
What is the valsalva manoeuvre?
| What was it originally used for?
A
203
How might a patient perform a valsalva manoeuvre?
A
204
What physiological changes occur during the valsalva manoeuvre?
A
205
What are the uses of the valsalva manoeuvre today?
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206
Describe abnormal responses to the valsalva manoeuvre
A
207
What is the difference between static and dynamic exercise?
A
208
What types of skeletal muscle fibre are there?
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209
Which substrates are used by skeletal muscle to generate energy for contraction?
A
210
What is muscle fatigue?
A
211
What physiological changes occur in anticipation of exercise?
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212
What are the physiological effects of exercise?
A
213
What is VO2 max?
A
214
What happens to O2 consumption after exercise?
A
215
How do elite athletes differ from the normal population physiologically?
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216
How can we assess patients' fitness for surgery?
A
217
How can exercise capacity be assessed clinically?
A
218
What normally happens to VO2 during CPET?
A
219
How are METs related to VO2?
A
220
What are the functions of the nervous system?
A
221
Describe the structure of a neuron
A
222
How is the nervous system organised?
A
223
What are the component tissues of peripheral nerves?
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224
Describe the gross anatomy of the brain
A
225
What are the meninges?
A
226
What are the neuroglia?
A
227
Describe the cerebral arterial blood supply
A
228
Describe the venous drainage of the brain
A
229
What is an electroencephalogram?
A
230
What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?
A
231
Where is CSF produced?
| Where is it absorbed?
A
232
Do the constituents of CSF differ from plasma?
A
233
What is hydrocephalus?
A
234
What are the functions of the blood brain barrier?
A
235
What are the anatomical layers of the BBB?
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236
How do substances cross the BBB?
A
237
Which substances are important to exclude from the brain?
A
238
Which CNS structures exist outside the BBB?
A
239
What proportion of CO does the brain receive?
A
240
What is CPP?
A
241
What is cerebral autoregulation?
A
242
What happens to neurons when CPP falls below 50ml/100g/min?
A
243
What is meant by 'flow- metabolism coupling?'
A
244
What factors affect global CBF?
A
245
How can CBF be measured?
A
246
What is ICP?
| How can it be measured?
A
247
What is the Monro-Kelly doctrine?
A
248
Explain Cushing's triad
A
249
How may ICP be reduced?
A
250
How is head injury classified?
A
251
How is brain injury classified?
A
252
How can traumatic brain injury be managed?
A
253
Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
A
254
Describe the cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord
A
255
Describe the blood supply to the spinal cord
A
256
Describe the main sensory afferent pathways
A
257
Describe the course of the corticospinal tract
A
258
How can acute spinal cord injury be classified?
A
259
How does the level of a complete spinal cord injury affect the different body systems?
A
260
Describe the common patterns of incomplete spinal cord injury
A
261
Describe the initial management of spinal cord injury
A
262
How is the membrane potential produced?
A
263
What is the Nernst equation?
A
264
How may the Nernst equation be applied to explain the RMP?
A
265
What is the Goldman equation?
A
266
How does the Na/K ATPase contribute to RMP?
A
267
What is an action potential?
A
268
Describe the events that lead to a nerve action potential
A
269
How are action potentials propagated along nerve axons?
A
270
How are nerve fibres classified?
A
271
What is meant by the term 'refractory period'?
A
272
What is a synapse?
A
273
What are neurotransmitters?
A
274
How are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft?
A
275
What is the difference between an ionotropic and metabotropic receptor?
A
276
What is the mechanism for ionotropic receptor signalling?
A
277
How is neurotransmission terminated?
A
278
What is the NMJ?
A
279
What are the functions of skeletal muscle?
A
280
Describe the anatomy of skeletal muscle
A
281
What is a sarcomere?
A
282
Describe the key structural features of thick and thin muscle filaments
A
283
What is meant by excitation-contraction coupling?
A
284
How does skeletal muscle contract?
A
285
What is the motor unit?
A
286
How is the force of muscle contraction determined?
A
287
What is proprioception?
A
288
What is a muscle spindle?
A
289
How are muscle spindles innervated?
A
290
What is a Golgi Tendon Organ?
A
291
What is a reflex arc?
A
292
Describe the knee jerk reflex
A
293
How is muscle tone controlled?
A
294
Where is smooth muscle found in the body?
A
295
What are the two types of smooth muscle?
A
296
How do smooth muscle cells differ from skeletal muscle cells?
A
297
How is smooth muscle excited?
A
298
Describe how excitation-contraction coupling occurs in smooth muscle
A
299
How does smooth muscle contract?
A
300
How is smooth muscle adapted for its function?
A
301
Describe the structural features of cardiac muscle
A
302
What is the RMP in cardiac muscle cells?
A
303
How do cardiac and nerve action potentials differ?
A
304
Outline the phases of the cardiac action potential
A
305
What are the refractory periods of the cardiac action potential?
A
306
Where are action potentials generated in the heart?
A
307
What is meant by the term 'pacemaker potential'?
A
308
Describe the action of the pacemaker currents
A
309
How are action potentials conducted through the heart?
A
310
Describe excitation-contraction coupling in the cardiac myocyte
A
311
How does cardiac muscle contract?
A
312
How is cardiac contraction terminated?
A
313
How does the ANS influence the heart?
A
314
Describe the normal ECG
A
315
How does cardiac electrophysiological activity generate ECG signals?
A
316
What is meant by an ECG lead?
A
317
Explain the QRS waveform
A
318
What is the cardiac axis?
A
319
What is the autonomic nervous system?
| How is it divided?
A
320
What are the visceral effects of the ANS?
A
321
Describe the anatomy of the ANS
A
322
What types of AChR exist?
A
323
What types of adrenergic receptor exist?
A
324
What is pain?
| Is it the same as nociception?
A
325
How is pain classified?
A
326
What is a nociceptor?
A
327
How is pain sensation transmitted?
A
328
How is pain modulated?
A
329
Define hyperalgesia and allodynia
| How do they occur?
A
330
What is neuropathic pain?
A
331
How is the ANS involved in development of pain?
A
332
Describe the anatomy of the eye
A
333
Describe the vascular and nervous supply to the eye
A
334
What is the optic disc?
A
335
What is intraocular pressure?
| How is it related to aqueous humour production?
A
336
What are the functions of saliva?
A
337
How is saliva produced?
A
338
What is the innervation of the salivary glands?
A
339
What are the phases of swallowing?
A
| 280
340
Describe the functional anatomy of the oesophagus
A
| 281
341
What are the functions of the stomach?
A
| 283
342
Which substances are secreted by the stomach?
A
| 283
343
How do the parietal cells secrete gastric acid?
A
| 284
344
What are the phases of gastric activity?
A
| 285
345
How is gastric emptying controlled?
A
| 285
346
How long does gastric emptying take?
A
| 286
347
What is vomiting?
| How is it controlled?
A
| 287
348
Describe the sequence of events involved in vomiting
A
| 288
349
Which gastrointestinal organs are involved in digestion?
A
| 289
350
How is the small intestine anatomically and histologically arranged?
A
| 289
351
How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed?
A
| 290
352
How are proteins digested and absorbed?
A
| 290
353
How are lipids digested and absorbed?
A
| 291
354
What are the functions of the pancreas?
A
| 291
355
How are pancreatic secretions involved in digestion?
A
| 291
356
How are pancreatic secretions controlled?
A
| 293
357
How does intestinal motility differ in fed and fasting states?
A
| 293
358
How is intestinal motility controlled?
A
| 293
359
Describe the blood supply to the liver
A
| 295
360
How is hepatic blood flow regulated?
A
| 295
361
How does the respiratory cycle affect hepatic venous blood flow?
A
| 295
362
Describe the macroscopic anatomy of the liver
A
| 296
363
Describe the microscopic anatomy of the liver
A
| 296
364
What are the different cell types within the liver?
A
| 297
365
What are the functions of the liver?
A
| 299
366
What physiological changes occur in liver cirrhosis?
A
367
What are liver function tests?
A
| 304
368
What are the functions of the kidney?
A
| 307
369
Describe the anatomy of the kidney
A
| 307
370
Describe the structure of the nephron
A
| 307
371
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
A
| 308
372
How is renal blood flow regulated?
A
| 309
373
How can renal blood flow be measured?
A
| 311
374
How does filtration occur in the kidney?
A
| 313
375
What happens to the filtrate in renal tubules?
A
| 313
376
Other than filtration, how may substances be renally excreted?
A
| 314
377
What is meant by the term 'clearance'?
A
378
What is GFR?
| How is it related to Starling's forces?
A
| 315
379
How is clearance used in the measurement of GFR?
A
| 316
380
What is meant by the term 'filtration fraction'?
A
| 317
381
How is water distributed in the body?
A
| 318
382
How is the volume of water in different body compartments measured?
A
| 318
383
How is plasma volume regulated?
A
| 318
384
Contrast molarity, osmolarity and osmolality
A
| 319
385
Why must plasma osmolarity be regulated?
A
| 319
386
How is plasma osmolarity controlled?
A
| 320
387
How does ADH act at the kidney?
A
| 320
388
How is the osmolarity of the renal medulla generated?
A
| 320
389
How does the kidney regulate Na excretion?
A
| 323
390
Summarise the physiological response to low plasma volume
A
| 324
391
Is it more important to regulate plasma volume or osmolarity?
A
| 325
392
Summarise the physiological response to high plasma volume
A
| 325
393
How is plasma potassium regulated?
A
| 326
394
What is an acid?
A
| 329
395
What are the Brønsted Lowry definitions of acid and base?
A
| 329
396
What is pH?
A
| 329
397
What is kA?
| What is pKA?
A
| 329
398
What is the Henderson Hasselbalch equation?
A
| 330
399
How are acid-base disorders classified?
A
| 330
400
What is base excess?
A
| 331
401
What is the anion gap?
A
| 331
402
How is pH regulated?
A
| 332
403
What are the consequences of acid-base disturbance?
A
| 334
404
What is the Stewart approach to acid-base physiology?
A
| 336
405
How is urine stored and excreted from the body?
A
| 338
406
How is urinary continence achieved?
A
| 338
407
What happens to intravesicular pressure as the bladder fills?
A
| 338
408
What is haemostasis?
A
| 341
409
How does the vascular endothelium prevent haemostasis?
A
| 341
410
Outline the steps involved in haemostasis
A
| 341
411
How is haemostasis initiated?
A
| 342
412
Describe the steps involved in platelet activation and aggregation
A
| 342
413
Describe the steps of the coagulation cascade
A
| 342
414
What is the cell-based model of coagulation?
A
| 345
415
What are the main lab tests of clotting?
A
| 346
416
What is thromboelastography?
A
| 348
417
What is the fibrinolytic pathway?
A
| 348
418
What are red blood cell antigens?
A
| 350
419
Why does the immune system develop antibodies to RBC antigens?
A
| 350
420
What are the serious complications of blood transfusion?
A
| 351-353
421
How are blood products stored?
A
| 352
422
What is cell salvage?
A
| 353
423
What is massive transfusion?
| Why is it relevant?
A
| 354
424
Are there alternatives to blood transfusion to increase O2 carrying capacity?
A
| 355
425
What are the stages of red blood cell production?
A
| 356
426
What are the possible causes of anaemia?
A
| 356
427
What are the potential consequences of anaemia?
A
| 357
428
How is iron managed by the body?
A
| 357
429
What is polycythaemia?
A
| 358
430
Contrast antigen, hapten and allergen
A
| 360
431
How is the immune system organised?
A
| 360
432
What is inflammation?
A
| 361
433
What substances are involved in inflammation?
A
| 362
434
What are the roles of complement?
A
| 362
435
What is lymphoid tissue?
| How is the thymus involved in lymphocyte maturation?
A
| 363
436
What are antibodies?
| How are they produced?
A
| 363
437
What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune response?
A
| 365
438
Contrast active and passive immunisation
A
| 365
439
What is cell-mediated immunity?
A
| 366
440
What is immunodeficiency?
A
| 367
441
What is hypersensitivity?
A
| 368
442
What are the components of blood?
A
| 371
443
What are the plasma proteins?
A
| 371
444
What are the functions of albumin?
A
| 371
445
What does 'cellular respiration' mean?
A
| 373
446
From what substrates can ATP be produced?
| How?
A
| 373
447
Describe the glycolytic pathway
A
| 374
448
Describe the citric acid cycle
A
| 375
449
Describe the electron transport chain
A
| 376
450
Compare ATP production from glucose in aerobic Vs anaerobic metabolism
A
| 377
451
How are fats metabolised?
A
| 378
452
How are proteins catabolized?
A
| 378
453
How are energy sources stored in the body?
A
| 380
454
What is gluconeogenesis?
A
| 380
455
What is the pentose phosphate pathway?
A
| 381
456
What are the effects of insulin and glucagon?
A
| 381
457
What is meant by 'basal metabolic rate'?
A
| 383
458
What changes occur during starvation?
A
| 384
459
What is the usual mode of death in starvation?
A
| 384
460
What is refeeding syndrome?
A
| 385
461
What is the stress response?
How is it initiated?
What are its effects?
A
| 387
462
What are the adverse consequences of the stress response?
A
| 388
463
How may anaesthetists reduce the stress response to surgery?
A
| 388
464
What is a hormone?
A
| 391
465
What are the functions of the hypothalamus?
A
| 391
466
Describe the anatomy of the pituitary gland
A
| 392
467
What is meant by the term HPA axis?
A
| 393
468
Which hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland?
A
| 393
469
Which hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland?
| What are their physiological effects?
A
| 396
470
How are T3 and T4 synthesised?
A
| 396
471
How is the plasma concentration of thyroid hormones regulated?
A
| 397
472
What is Graves' disease?
| How is it managed?
A
| 398
473
What are the physiological functions of calcium?
A
| 399
474
What is the distribution of body calcium?
A
| 399
475
How is Calcium concentration regulated?
A
| 399
476
Describe the anatomy of the adrenal glands
A
| 401
477
Discuss the physiology of aldosterone
A
| 401
478
What are the functions of cortisol?
A
| 402
479
How is cortisol secretion regulated?
A
| 402
480
How are catecholamines synthesised?
A
| 402
481
How is catecholamine secretion controlled?
A
| 403
482
What are the physiological effects of adrenaline and noradenaline?
A
| 403
483
How are catecholamines metabolised?
A
| 404
484
How does endocrine function alter in pregnancy?
A
| 405
485
What are the physiological changes in pregnancy?
A
| 406
486
What are the functions of the placenta?
A
| 411
487
How does the anatomy of the placenta pertain to its functions?
A
| 411
488
What are the mechanisms by which substances cross the placenta?
A
| 412
489
What factors affect foetal oxygen delivery?
A
| 413
490
What is the double Haldane effect?
A
| 414
491
How is foetal oxygenation affected by labour?
A
| 414
492
Describe the foetal circulation
A
| 415
493
What are the physiological changes that occur at birth?
A
| 416
494
What are the main physiological differences between children and adults?
A
| 418
495
What makes surgery and anaesthesia in older people higher risk?
A
| 422
496
What are the causes of ageing?
A
| 425
497
What is obesity?
A
| 427
498
What are the physiological consequences of obesity?
A
| 427
499
What is the role of leptin in appetite?
A
| 428
500
What are the problems associated with altitude?
A
| 431
501
How does altitude affect alveolar O2 tension?
A
| 431
502
How does the body adapt to life at altitude?
A
| 431
503
Discuss high altitude illness
A
| 433
504
What is the diving reflex?
A
| 434
505
What physiological changes occur in 'head out immersion'?
A
| 434
506
What happens to air in the lungs during a breath-hold dive?
A
| 434
507
How does breath-hold diving compare to SCUBA?
A
| 435
508
What is decompression sickness?
A
| 435
509
How is body temperature regulated?
A
| 436
510
How does general anaesthesia disturb thermoregulatory mechanisms?
A
| 436
511
What are the effects of hypothermia?
A
| 437
