Physiology Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
3 monosaccharides
A
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose
2
Q
What bond joins monosaccharides
A
Glycosidic bond
3
Q
What breaks down disaccharides
A
Brush border enzymes
4
Q
Brush border enzymes are?
And examples
A
On apical membrane of epithelial membrane
Lactase
Sucrase
Maltase
5
Q
What happens to monosaccharides
A
Products of breakdown and digestion
And absorbed by small intestine (small enough)
6
Q
3 disaccharides examples
And what each is made up of ?
A
Lactose (glucose and galactose)
Sucrose (glucose and fructose)
Maltose (glucose and glucose)
7
Q
3 polysaccharides
A
Starch
Cellulose
Glycogen
8
Q
Starch is what?
2 types?
Made up of?
A
Plant storage form of glucose
Alpha-amylose - glucose in straight chains
Amylopectin - glucose in branched chains
Glucose linked by alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds
9
Q
Amylase breaks down what?
Found where? 2
A
Starch
Saliva
Pancreas
10
Q
Cellulose?
What is it
Made up of?
A
Dietary fibre
Constituent of plant cell walls
Unbranched linear chains of glucose linked by beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds
11
Q
Cellulase in body?
A
Only in certain bacteria found in large intestine
Not in any vertebrate
We need this bacteria to break down cellulose
12
Q
Glycogen
What is it
Made up of?
Where?
A
Animal storage of glucose
Made up of glucose linked by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver
13
Q
Glucose blood level
A
5 mmol/L
14
Q
Microvilli why have it?
A
Increase surface area and increase absorption of nutrients
15
Q
2 membranes of epithelial cells
A
Apical
Basolateral |_|
16
Q
2 epithelial cells separated by
A
Tight junction
17
Q
Transcellular and paracellular means?
A
Transcellular- through cells
Paracellular - through tight junctions- between cells
18
Q
Vectorial transport?
Needs what?
A
Transport across epithelial cell in one direction
Needs transporter proteins distributed between apical and basolateral membrane
These proteins are placed non randomly
19
Q
Secondary active transport process means?
A
Moves 2 different molecules across membrane
Opposite ways maybe
20
Q
What membrane proteins involved in transporting glucose and galactose across epithelial membrane in small I?
A
SGLT1 in apical membrane
GLUT2 in basolateral membrane for sugars
And
Na/KATPase pump
21
Q
If transport is Na dependant what does it mean too?
A
Water also transported by osmosis in tight junction complex
22
Q
What membrane proteins are involved in transporting fructose in small intestine epithelial cells?
And is it dependant?
A
GLUT5 in apical membrane
GLUT2 in basolateral membrane
Not dependant not even Na dependant
23
Q
Amino acids linked by what?
A
Peptide bond
O=C-N-H
24
Q
Small proteins are called?
A
Di/tri Peptides
25
What enzymes break down protein and peptides?
Pro teases and peptidases
26
Endopeptidases?
Exopeptidases ?
Endopeptidase- acts on interior AA not exterior
Into smaller peptidases
Exopeptidases = act on terminal end AA
- aminopeptidase - act on amino end
- carboxypeptidase - act on carboxylate end
Chop off one AA at a time
27
Proteases example 2
Trypsin
| Chymotrypsin
28
How many essential and non essential AA and what means
```
9 essential (not made by body)
and 11 non essential (made by body)
```
29
What membrane proteins used in amino acids transport over small intestine epithelial cells?
SAAT1 on apical membrane
NA DEPENDANT on basolateral membrAne (unknown name)
Na/KATPase pump
30
What membrane proteins used in di/tri peptides transport in small intestine epithelial cells?
4 and what each transport
NHE3 in apical membrane - Na(in)/Hion(out)crossover
PepT1 in apical membrane - Hion/peptide(both in)
Na/KATPase in basolateral mamebrane - Kin and Na out
unknown in basolateral membrane - peptide out bottom
31
What is created from peptide transporting?
Due to?
Acid microclimate on apical membrane -closer to its surface
Due to H ion transferred out cycle
32
Triglycerol made up of?
Glycerol and 3 stearic acids
33
Issue with lipase?
Water soluble enzyme
Digestion only occurs at surface of fat droplet
So very slow
34
Lipase from where?
Pancreas
35
Emulsification does what?
Speed up digestion process of fat
36
What is emulsification
| And why
Diving large droplets into smaller droplets
To increase SA and allow more accessibility for lipase action
37
Mechanical disruption in stomach does what and how?
Large droplets into small droplet
Smooth muscle contraction grinds and mixes lumenal contents
38
Emulsifying agents example s
Where they found?
What they do?
Bile salts
Phospholipids
secreted in bile
Prevents small droplets reforming and aggregating and they are amphiphatic so repel and prevent this
39
Micelles size
4-7 micro m
RBC size
40
Michelle made up of?
Monoglyceride
Fatty acids
Emulsifying agents(bile salt, phospholipids)
41
What does the Micelle do?
Travels to surface (acid microclimate) and releases free FA and monoglyc.
And they diffuse across apical membrane
Unabsorbed ones taken back up and recycled until all absorbed
They breakdown and reform
42
Is the micelle absorbed?
No micelle is too large
| They are extra cellular and big
43
Why we form micelle?
Allow travelling through aq solution to cell
| Free FA and monoglyc. Can’t do that
44
Stages in cell once FA and monoglyc. Enter
1. Enter sER and reformed into triglycerol by sER enzymes
2. These are emulsified by amphiphatic protein to prevent clumping
3. Triglycerol droplets transported thru vesicles to Golgi apparatus
4. Exocytosis out of BL membrane
5. Extra cellular called CHYLOMICRONS
6. These enter lacteal and transported to lymph system
45
CHYLOMICRONS
What happens to them and why?
Extra cellular fat
ALSO
Contains phospholipids, cholesterol and fat soluble vitamins
Enter lacteal as too large for capillary
46
Vesicles made from?
Formed by sER membrane
47
Fat soluble vitamins examples
How absorbed ?
A D E K
Same process as fat
48
Water soluble vitamins examples
How is absorbed
B GROUP
C
FOLIC ACID
Absorbed By passive diffusion or carrier mediated transport
49
Vitamin B12
Function? And stored ?
How absorbed
Deficiency is what?
Needed for RBC maturation and function and stored in liver as storage
Complex combined with Intrinsic factor absorbed in end of small intestine(ileum) via transporters
Deficiency leads to pernicious anaemia
50
Minerals for example?
```
Na
k
Mg
Ca
Fe
```
51
How much of eaten iron is absorbed
10%
52
How is iron absorbed
Via DMT1 apical transporter in duodenal epithelial cells
-some bond to ferritin to form protein iron complex
And becomes trapped as a storage in cell
-unbound iron transferred out of bL membrane at bottom and bind to transferrin in blood and transported to liver
53
How is iron blood levels controlled?
Mechanism
Ex ap,e of what happening if hyperaemia and anaemia
The binding of iron to ferritin is modulated depending on body irons level
Hyperaemia - increase ferritin and more stored in cell
Anaemia - decrease in ferritin and more released out of cell
54
How is chewing innervated?
Somatic nerves
| Voluntary inner sting skeletal muscle of jaw
55
Chewing seen as a ?
| Explain
Reflex -
Presence of food and pressure of food against gums detected by mechanoreceptors and inhibit jaw muscles and contract
Cycle
56
Saliva secreted by what?
3 pairs of glands
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
57
What is in saliva? 5
```
Water
Mucins
Alpha-amylase
Electrolytes
Lysozyme
```
58
Electrolytes?
Minerals in body that have charge
Balances amount of water in body
Maintains ph/tonicity
59
Lysozyme?
Natural occurring enzyme in saliva which kills bacteria by cleaving polysaccharide component of bacterial cell walls
Bacteriocidal
60
Water and mucins role in saliva?
Water - softens and moistens dilutes substances
Mucins- viscous solution, lubricant function
61
Salivary glands made up of?
Types of secretions?
3 types of acini
Acini and ducts
2 types of secretions - serous and mucous
ACINI
Mixed
Serous
Mucous
62
What nerves innervate and action on salivary glands?
Para and symp.
Both stimulatory
No inhibitory
63
Parasympathetic innervation of salivary glands?
```
Cranial nerves (facial) and (glossopharyngeal)
Stimulates watery saliva secretion
```
REST/DIGEST
64
Sympathetic innervation of salivary glands?
Non-watery, viscous and sticky saliva
Controlled by separate adrenoreceptors
Alpha1 -high mucous content
beta2-high amylase content
65
What is saliva release like?
Reflex control
Presence of food in mouth detected by chemoreceptors and pressure receptors and activate saliva
66
Role of upper and lower oesophageal sphincter?
Regulate movement of material in and out of oesophagus
67
When is it Adventitia?
She outside peritoneal cavity
68
Where are submucosal glands found only?
Oesophageas
| And duodenum
69
Muscularis externa made up of?
Inner circular and outer longitudinal
70
Receptive relaxation of stomach means?
Relaxation of thin elastic stomach muscle of fundus and body initiated by relaxation of LOS and entry of bonus into stomach
Done by vagus nerve
71
As stomach vol increases what happens to its pressure ?
No change
72
Functions of stomach?5
```
Temporary storage
Dissolve food and initiate digestion
Control delivery into small I- no dumping syndrome
Produces IF
Sterilises eaten food by acid
```
73
Without stomach we won’t be able to?
Eat large amounts of food and process it gradually !
74
Pyloric sphincter role?
Prevents against dumping syndrome
| Controls what enters duodenum
75
Muscles externa layers of stomach?
Longitudinal OUT
Circular
Oblique IN
76
Why oblique muscle extra in stomach?
For more powerful contraction and breakdown of food
77
Rugae of stomach?
Innermost folds of wall
78
Luminal surface of stomach?
Most inner surface of stomach lined by epithelium = gastric glands and their cells
79
Fundus is like?
Thin and stretchy and elastic
80
3 cells inside gastric glands? And what each secrete
```
Mucous neck cells (secrete mucus)
Parietal cells (secrete HCl)
Chief cells (secrete pepsinogens)
```
81
Gastric pits?
Open into gastric glands
82
Where is myenteric and submucosal plexus found?
Myenteric - between circular and longitudinal muscle layers
Submucosal - between circular and submucosal layer
83
Function of antrum of stomach
Where all the mixing and grinding occurs
| And gastrin secreted by g cells
84
Proton pump?
H ion out and k in
85
Carbonic anhydrase does what?
Enzyme that catalysts co2 and water forming carbonic acid
86
Regulation of proton pump by what?
Explain each
Stimulatory hormones
Gastrin - endocrine from g cells
Histamine -paracrine
Acetylcholine -neural(parasympathetic.)
Inhibitory hormones
Prostaglandins
87
What phases control and involve gastric HCl secretions?
Cephalic phase -in head thinking/seeing about food
Gastric phase-food in stomach
Intestinal phase - food in intestine
88
Cephalic phase
Sight smell and taste of food triggers vagus nerve
Which acts on g cells and releases gastrin and triggers ACh
Local gastrin and ACh prescience then act on ecl cells and release histamine
All acting on parietal cells to increase acid released
89
Role of cephalic phase though?
Protective measure to prep stomach before food enters
90
Gastric phase?
When food inside stomach Still triggering more HCl
By distension of stomach triggering vagus nerve
Peptides in stomach triggering g cells
Local gastrin and ACh presence triggering ECL cells
91
Submucosal glands release what in duodenum
Secretin and GIP and CCK
92
What triggers response to reduce acid in duodenum in intestinal phase
Acid in duodenum and Fat/CHO in duodenum
93
Pepsinogen is
Pepsin in inactive form
94
What activates and deactivates chief cells to release pepsinogen?
Acidic environment in stomach activates pepsin and deactivated by neutral pH
95
What regulates pepsin secretion
Same as HCL secretion
Gastrin
Histamine
ACh
All increase pepsin secretion
96
How is mucus secreted into stomach and creates what?
Mucus secreted by neck cells onto surface of stomach lumen
Creates thick layer coat slidy surface for harmful surface
97
Mucus thick layer coat in stomach lumen effect?
Rich in bicarbonate which creates neutral ph at surface of stomach lumen
Deactivates pepsin and neutralises acid near surface
Protects against gastric acid corrosion and pepsin digestion
98
Intrinsic factor produced by
Parietal cells
99
Gastric motility
Persistaltic waves from body into antrum to move food
100
How is antrum mixing brought about?
Contraction of pyloric sphincter where food hits and is recycled and continues to mix as forced back up
101
Peristaltic rhythm generated by what in stomach?
By pacemaker cells in longitudinal muscle layer
102
BER ?
Basic electrical rhythm
Each part of gut has its own BER
103
How is peristaltic waves conducted in stomach?
By slow waves through gap junction along longitudal muscle layer
Longitudinal muscle cells connected by tight junction
Need above threshold to induce AP and later on a contraction
104
What two things trigger increase contraction and what one thing decreases contraction in stomach?
Gastrin hormone increases contraction
Dissensions of stomach wall increases contraction
Fat AA or acid in duodenum inhibits contraction
105
Why do we need to neutralise acid in duodenum
Due to digestive enzymes needing a optimum neural pH
106
How neutralisation of acid in duodenum occurs
Bicarbonate HCO3 secreted from brunners glands cells SUBMUCOSAL glands
Neutralises acid
107
Accessory pancreatic duct for?
In case other is blocked
Variable in people
108
Common bile duct from where?
GB
109
Two types of cells in pancreas that enters pancreatic duct?
Acinar - enzyme secrete
Duct cell- secrete bicarbonate
110
Zymogens?
Where
Enzymes stored in inactive forms
How it’s stored in acinar cells
111
How is inactive zymogen activated in small I?
Inactive enzyme from pancreas trypsinogen goes to small I
Enterokinase enzyme on surface of apical membrane of duodenum epithelial cells converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Trypsinogen then converts all zymogens into active enzyme forms in small I
112
Why stored as zymogens in pancreas?
To prevent pancreas autodigesting
113
Nucleases -?
Elastase-?
Phospholipases?
Lipases?
Nucleases -hydrolyses DNA and rna
Elastase -collegan digestion
Phospholipases- phospholipids to FA
Lipases - triglycerides to FA and monoglyc.
114
What controls zymogen secretion
CCK
Released in reposted to FAt/AA in duodenum
And stimulates zymogen release
For digestion
115
How many lobes of liver
4 lobes
Right and left
Caudate -
quadrate-
116
Porta of liver and where
On inferior surface and where entry/exit of vessels into/out liver
117
What enters liver?
And leaves liver
Portal vein
Hepatic artery
Hepatic vein
118
What joins to form common bile duct
Common hepatic duct and cystic duct
119
What separates left and right lobes of liver
3 ligaments of liver
Falciform ligament and end with round ligament at bottom
And coronary ligament on top surface
120
Round ligament remnants of?
Umbilical vein that exists in free edge of falciform ligament
121
Bare area of liver
Small area on diaphragmatic surface surrounded by coronary ligament
With no connective tissue covering it
122
How do vessels and ducts follow through liver
Follow septa throughout liver -
| Network of connective tissue
123
Septa divides liver into what
Hexagonal lobules
124
Portal trains where?
Corners of hexagonal lobules
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery
Hepatic duct
125
What forms hepatic veins
| And drains into what
Central veins joining
Then draining into Ivc
126
Hepatic cords made up of?
Hepatocytes
127
Bile canaliculus?
Lie between cells within each cord
Where bile runs out from centre and to bile duct
128
Hepatic sinusoids?
Open channels between cords - blood channels
Where processing can happen
129
What type of blood in hepatic portal vein?
Oxygen low
High nutrients
Blood
130
Hepatic artery blood type
Oxygen rich
Lack of nutrients
Blood
131
What is occurring at sinusoids
Mixing of high oxygen and low nutrient blood
With
Low oxygen and high nutrient blood
132
Sinusoids interact with what?
With hepatocytes where processing occurs
133
Hepatocytes functions ? 4
Bile synthesis
Nutrient storage (glycogen, fat, B12, iron)
Nutrient inter conversion for requirements
Detoxification - is accident,y ingested toxic stuff - dump into bile for release out of other end
134
Function of liver ?
Production and secretion of bile
135
6 components of bile
```
Bile acids
Lecithin
Cholesterol
Bile pigments
Toxic stuff
Bicarbonate released by liver duct cells
```
But both can’t look too beautifull
136
Lecithin ?
Fat essential for cells and breaks fat dietary down
137
Bile pigments such as?
What is it? For?
Bilirubin
Yellow substance forms after RBC breaks down and travels to liver
Breakdown product
Reason why poo is brown and pee is yellow - excreted out
138
Bile acids how made?
And used?
Bile acid made from cholesterol by hepatocytes
Bile acid is unsoluble then combines with glycine/taurine to form bile salt = soluble
Secreted into bile duct and into small I
139
What happens to bile salts?
Reabsorped where?
Recycled via enterhepatic circulation
Some 5% lost in faeces and rest is recycled via portal vein
Reabsorbed in ileum area
140
Function of gall bladders?
And how does it do it?
Concentrates bile by absorbing water and Na+
141
What does sphincter of oddi do?
Controls release of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum
142
CCK affect on oddi and gallbladder and pancreas?
Relaxes oddi
Contracts gallbladder and bile secretion triggered
Triggers acinar cells in pancreas to realease enzymes
143
What occurring in each segment of small I?
Duodenum- gastric acid neutralisation and digestion and iron absorption
Jejunum- nutrient absorption
Ileum- nacl absorption and dehydration of chyme, absorbs left overs(B12, bile acids)
144
Why called small intestine?
Smaller diameter
145
Plicae?
Numerous folds of mucous membrane on small I wall
146
Why have plicae?
Increases SA helps mixing and gets nutrients closer contact to epithelial cells
147
What are crypts?
Invagination of epithelium around villi and lined with younger epithelial cells
Stem cells are here
148
What it means when they say epithelial cells have short life span?
Mucousal surface constantly shredding and renewing the epithelial cells
Turnover rapid
Like an elevator from crypt to villus top and down death
149
Where are crypts found?
Small I
150
2 cells found on villi in small I?
Goblet - give mucous layer acid microclimate
| Absorptive
151
Where does laminate propria lie?
Epithelium on LP
Provides support and nutrients to it
152
Epithelium type in small I
Simple columnar epithelium
153
Type of epithelium in stomach?
Simple columnar epithelium
154
Villus does what?
| Crypt cell does what?
Villus absorbs
| Crypt cell secretes Cl and water
155
Water absorption needs what?
| Water secretion needs what?
Absorption Na gradient
| Secretion Cl gradient
156
What does small I do with water?
Absorbs it - villus
Secretes it - crypt
157
How is water secreted out in small I?
Secretes out by passive diffusion
Using Cl channel called CFTR as a driver to push water out
158
Why is water secretion important in digestion? 4
Maintains lumenal contents in liquid state
Promotes mixing of nutrients with enzymes
Dilutes and washes away any injurious substances
Helps absorption and promotes it
159
What is cftr?
Cl channel to drive water secretion
160
What protein activates and opens cftr?
Protein kinase A
161
Two types of intestinal movements
Segmentation
| Peristalsis
162
Can segmentation and peristalsis occur at same time?
No either or
163
Segmentation intestinal movement describe
Allows what
When occurs
Back and forth contraction and relaxation
Of short intestinal segments
Relaxed areas contract then relax
Allows for thorough mixing of contents
During a meal or aftermath
164
Difference between segmentation and peristalsis what are they contracting
Segmentation - contract circular muscles
Peristalsis-Contract Longitudinal muscles
165
Small I how does it contract
Like stomach and has pacemaker cells in longitudinal muscle layer
BER. Is subthreshold and needs input to fire AP
166
What determines strength of contraction of small I muscle ?
Action potential frequency
167
BER what happens as you go down intestine
Decreases
168
Effect of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervation on small I contraction
Para. - increase contraction
| Symp. - decrease contraction
169
What nerves innervate small I muscles contraction? 3
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
170
When does peristalsis in small I occur
After absorption of nutrients
Between meals
171
When does segmentation occur in small I
While during a meal while absorbing
172
Migrating motility complex is what?
Pattern of peristaltic activity travelling down small I
During periods between meals
As one MMC ends another begins
173
What cessation of mmc
Arrival of food in stomach initiates segmentation
174
Role of MMC?
Why is it good? Important?
To clean out small I and sweep left overs out and undigested material out and transfer to large I
This tops bacteria colonisation in small I
175
What triggers start of MMC?
Motilin hormone
Motilin is high means
Nutrients absorbed is low
176
Law of intestine - how is bolus always moved
Into area of relaxation towards colon
177
Gastricileal reflex is what ?
| Explainnsteps
1. Gastric emptying into small I
2. Triggers segmentation activity in ileum
3. Opening of ileocaecal sphincter
4. Entry of chyme into large I
5. Distension of colon wall as fills
6. Reflex contraction of sphincter to prevent backflow into small I
178
Gastroileal reflex is what type of reflex?
Long
From gastric to large I !!!
179
Colon parts 4
Ascending
Transverse
Descending
Sigmoid
180
What is the muscles layers like in colon?
Circular is complete and longitudinal is incomplete
181
Teniae coli?
What happens when these contract?
3 Bands along length of colon -strips of longitudinal muscle
When they contract they form haustra pouches
182
Caecum function?
Appendix is projection from it
No function
183
Villi in large intestine?
No villi
| Just straight deeper crypts with lots of goblet cells
184
Why lots of goblet cells in large I?
Mucus creates flat slimy,slippery surface for solid faeces to slide out
185
What is rectum?
Straight muscular tube between sigmoid and anus
186
Epithelium of rectum?
Simple columnar epithelium
187
Which Muscalaris is thicker anus or rectum?
Rectum is less thicker than anus
188
Flow from rectum out from body?
```
Rectum
Anal canal
Internal anal sphincter
External anal sphincter
Anus
```
189
Internal anal sphincter difference with external anal sphincter?
```
Internal = smooth muscle we can’t control it
External = skeletal muscle we can control it
```
190
Epithelium change in anus
Simple columnar to
| Stratified squamous epithelium (cheeks of bum)
191
What happens with water in large I?
Absorption of water by Na gradient
Dehydrates chyme to form solid faecal pellets
192
Why does bacteria colonise in large I
Due to long residence in colon
193
Role of bacteria in large I?
Outcome of it?
Fermentation/breakdown of undigested carbohydrates/undigested material
To form bio products -
Short chain FA for energy
Vit K for blood clotting
Gas - nitrogen/CO2 farts
194
Mass movement contraction ?
Material entering rectal wall from colon
| A wave of contraction
195
What triggers defaecation reflex?
Distension of rectal wall sensed by mechanoreceptors increase urge to defaecate
196
Defaecation reflex innervation explain?
Parasympathetic only via pelvic splanchnic nerves
No sympathetic influence
197
Defaecation reflex steps explain
Contraction of rectum and distension of wall
Relaxation of internal and contraction of external sphincter
Increased peristaltic activity in colon to push more into rectum to increase urge
Pressure increases on external sphincter and relaxes under voluntary control
Expulsion of faeces
198
What is constipation
Find it hard to poo don’t go to toilet often
No absorption of toxins from faecal material too
Distension of rectum for too long
199
What is diarrhoea
Faeces too liquid
Leads to dehydration as losing too much fluid
200
Causes of Diarrhea?
| Explain mechanism
Bacteria e.g. - e.coli, cholera
Produce protein toxins that turn on crypt cells on MAX so secrete lots of water and CL
And so water swamps the lumen
Infected crypt cells essentially
201
Treatment of diarrhoea?
Oral rehydration therapy
Salt and sugar solution Na/glucose
This Will drive water absorption and rehydration in villi cells
202
GAHS score? TELLS U WHAT
glasgow alcoholic hepatitis
| -preducts mortality in patients with alcoholc hepatitis
203
end stage liver disease?
cirrhosis with low albumin, prolonged prothrombin time, raised bilirubin, ascites, encephalopathy
204
prothrombin time?
test to see how long takes blood to clot
205
cholecystitis?
inflamed gall bladder
206
alcohol withdrawal from when?
24hrs onwards
207
features of alcohol withdrawal?
```
sweating
hypertension
nausea
weakness
vomiting
anxiety
```
208
ascites caused by?
portal hypertension
| low serum albumin - causing low plasma pressure
209
what reduces risk of further bleeding?
beta-blocker
210
hellers myotmy?
cut muscles of LOS - allowing food to pass into stomach
211
how to diagnose toxic megacolon?
transverse colon distended over 5cm and patient is systemically unwell
212
pSc associated with more In IBD?
UC
213
IS TRYPSIN released by pancreatic cells?
NO
released as trypsinogen
and covnerted to trypsin in duodenum by enzyme
214
cellulase in a vertebrate?
does not exist - no vertebrate has cellulase in them
215
stomach dimension does what to gastric secretion?
increases it
216
what stimulates bicarbonate from brunners glands?
secretin
217
pepsin requires what environment to work?
acidic environment
218
cck does what?
cause gb to contract and relaxing of sphincter of oddi
219
conjoint tendon formed by?
internal oblique and transversus abdomnis
220
direct hernia?
weakness of abdominal wall
221
inguinal canal posterior wall formed by
posterior wall- transversals fascia
| anterior wall - external oblique
222
encephalopathy caused by lack of what vitamin?
B1
223
MAIN REASON FOR ASCITES?
PORTAL HYPERTENSION
224
treatment of ascites?
sodium restriction
| fluid retention
225
side effects of opioids?
constipation
226
how does pancreatitis affect glucose levels?
HYPERGLYCEMIA
227
SIDE EFFECT OF PPI?
C DIFF infection risk
228
what level of neutrophils in ascites indicate Ab needed in SBP?
more than 250 cells per mm3
229
when does it hint to be churns disease?
when affects stuff along the whole git - mouth to anus
