Physiology of Blood Flashcards
(220 cards)
1
Q
What is the normal Hematocrit PCV (packed cell volume) % for dogs?
A
40-59%
2
Q
What is the normal Hematocrit (packed cell volume) PCV % for cats?
A
29-50%
3
Q
What is the liquid portion of blood called?
A
plasma
4
Q
Come back to slide 4-6 for values
A
5
Q
What percent of body weight is blood?
A
± 6-8%
6
Q
What are the two fractions of blood?
A
- Noncellular (plasma)
- Cellular (red blood cells, white blood cells, and thrombocytes)
7
Q
What percentage of blood is plasma?
A
60%
8
Q
What percentage of blood is cells?
A
40%
9
Q
What are 4 functions of blood?
A
-Transportation (hormones, oxygen, immune cells)
- Regulation
- Defense
- Storage
10
Q
What does blood transport?
A
- Respiratory gasses (oxygen and CO2)
- Waste products of metabolism
- Nutrients
- Hormones
11
Q
What are some examples of waste products of metabolism?
A
- Urea (prod. in liver)
- Creatinine (prod. by muscles)
- Uric acid (biproducts of purines)
- Bilirubin (prod. by hemoglobin)
- hormone and drug metabolites (prod. by hormones and drugs)
12
Q
What determines the water content of tissues?
A
Albumin
13
Q
What determines the pH in blood?
A
Anions and cations that are found in blood (hydrogen ion concentration)
14
Q
When the H+ concentration is high, blood becomes more ______.
A
acidic
15
Q
When the bicarbonate concentration is high, blood becomes more ______.
A
alkaline
16
Q
pH is regulated by _______.
A
buffers
17
Q
What is a buffer?
A
A substance that keeps the pH of a solution constant, so that even if a strong acid/base, that pH does not change.
18
Q
What 2 things act as buffers in the blood? What do they do?
A
Plasma proteins and hemoglobin.
They can hold onto a proton ion, as well as a hydroxide anion, and prevent these substances from being free.
19
Q
How does blood regulate hormones?
A
Through a negative feedback loop.
The hypothalamus produces releasing hormone
The hormone concentration in blood will control if the brain should produce more or less of this hormone
20
Q
come back to regulation slide
A
21
Q
Monocytes go into tissues to become ______.
A
Macrophages
22
Q
What are plasma cells?
A
cells in the blood that produce antibodies
23
Q
How does blood defend against blood loss?
A
Coagulation
24
Q
How does blood defend against toxins?
A
With antibodies
25
What ion gives red blood cells their color?
hemoglobin
26
come back to slide 14
27
What are the major plasma proteins?
Albumin, globulins (alpha, beta, gamma), fibrinogen
28
Where are plasma proteins produced?
in the liver
29
Why is the concentration of plasma proteins important?
To maintain the normal function of blood
30
What determines blood pressure?
Albumin
31
What controls the blood clotting mechanism?
Fibrinogen
32
What are the functions of plasma proteins?
- oncotic pressure
- buffers
- viscosity (amnt of RBCs or concentration of pps)
- source of nutrients
- carriers of non-water-soluble substances
33
What organelle synthesizes heme in the red blood cell?
mitochondria
34
What is IgA?
An immunoglobulin effective against microorganisms present in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract
35
What is IgM?
The naturally occurring antibody against red blood cells in certain incompatible blood types
First antibody produced by the activated B cells and is specifically effective in activating the complement system
36
What is the complement system?
37
What is IgD?
38
What plasma protein predominates over globulins in sheep, goats, and dogs?
albumin
39
*slide 23 plasma proteins in diff species
40
Plasma proteins help to maintain normal blood pressure by contributing to the _______ of the blood.
viscosity
41
What is the function of hemoglobin? (Hb)
to carry gasses
42
Where are all blood cells made?
In the bone marrow (can be in other places during development)
43
What is erythropoiesis, and what are the characteristic changes?
The formation of red blood cells:
-reduction in size of the CFU-E
- nucleus and nucleoli disappear
- hemoglobin appears
- staining properties in cytoplasm change
44
What is the normal pH of blood, and what organs is it regulated by?
7.32- 7.45
the lung and kidney
45
What is viscosity, and what are the main factors that contribute to it?
The friction of molecules and cells in blood
Whole blood and plasma are the main factors of viscosity
46
What is the function of thrombomodulin? What role does it play during blood clotting?
Enhances the activiation of protein C by thrombin and
results in the inactivation of factor V and VIII.
Modulates thrombin
47
What ligand stimulates platelets to become active by producing second messengers such as inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerate ( DAG)?
Thrombin
48
What are the types of blood cells?
RBC (erythrocytes)
WBC (leukocytes)
Platelets (thrombocytes)
49
Where are RBCs produced at the different prenatal and postnatal stages?
Prenatal:
- Yolk sac- early pregnancy
- Liver and spleen- Mid-pregnancy
Late pregnancy and Postnatal:
- Bone marrow
50
What are the 2 categories of white blood cells (myeloid cells), and what are the members of each category?
Granulocytes:
- Eosinophils
- Neutrophils
- Basophils
Agranulocytes:
- Monocyte
- Lymphocyte
51
What is another term for committed progenitor cells?
Myeloid cell progenitors
52
What is the ion that makes blood red?
Hemoglobin
53
The size of the central pallor (white central zone of rbc) determines the _________.
concentration of hemoglobin.
The wider it is, the smaller [ ] of hemoglobin
54
What is the size of RBC in dogs?
7.3 microns
55
What is the size of RBC in cats?
6.5 microns
56
What hormone controls erythropoiesis (the production of red blood cells)?
erythropoietin (also called erythrocyte stimulating factor)
It is a glycoprotein secreted by the peritubular capillaries of the kidney, liver, and brain.
In dogs, it is secreted ONLY in the kidney
57
What are the **general** factors needed for erythropoiesis?
- Stimulus/Erythropoietin (stimulated by the amount of O2partial pressure in blood- a function of the TRBC)
- Thyroxine- regulation of cell metabolism
- Hemopoietic growth factors
- Vitamins
58
What is thyroxine?
A hormone that increases the rate of cell metabolism by consuming oxygen, which can create a hypoxic state
59
What is polycythemia?
A type of blood cancer from increased production of RBCs.
60
What are some other erythropoietin stimulants?
- Norepinephrine
- Epinephrine
- Several prostaglandins
61
What are the immature forms of red blood cells?
reticulocyte (very tiny nucleus materials) and normoblast (still retains significant amount of nucleus)
62
What are the 6 hematopoietic growth factors, and what do they develop into?
- Granulocyte-CSF: Granulocyte-monocyte
- Granulocyte CSF: Granulocyte
- Macrophage CSF: Monocyte
- Erythropoietin: Erythrocyte
- Interleukin-3, 6, 11: Myeloid lineage
- Thrombopoietin: Platelet
63
What different vitamin deficiencies cause what diseases?
Vitamin B- anaemia and pellagra
Vitamin C- anaemia and scurvy
Vitamin D- Anaemia and rickets
VItamine E- anaemia and malnutrition
64
What are the stages of development in Erythropoiesis?
- Proerythroblast
- Basophil erythroblast
- Polychromatophil erythroblast
- Orthochromatic erythroblast
- Reticulocyte
- Erythrocyte
| please bring popocorn or really everything
65
What makes up hemoglobin?
heme and globin
66
What breaks down iron to be recycled?
transferrin
67
What vitamin is essential in the synthesis of hemoglobin and the differentiation of the cell lines for erythrocytes and CFU cells?
Vitamin B
68
What is Vitamin B protected by so it can be absorbed intact and stored in the liver and muscles? What does it do once it binds to B12?
Intrinsic factor- a substance produced by parietal cells in the stomach. Also produces folic acid.
Binds to B12 and then to specific small intestinal cells brush border (at the ileum)
69
Vitamin B12 and intrinsic factor together are called _______.
hematinic principle
supports increased production of RBCs
70
What is folic acid needed for?
Maturation, and the synthesis of DNA of RBCs
71
Where is folic acid absorbed?
The proximal jejunum (middle part of the small intestine)
72
What 5 factors/elements are necessary for hemoglobin formation? Why?
- High protein in the diet for globin synthesis
- Iron for the formation of heme
- Copper for the absorption of iron
- Cobalt and nickel for the utilization of iron during Hb formation
- Vitamin- C, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, and pyridoxine for the formation of Hb
73
What are the physical properties of RBCs?
- Permeability- to gasses, supported by transport proteins found on the membrane.
- Deformation- should maintain flexibility for diffusion of gasses
- Fragility and hemolysis or creation (tonicity)
- Isosmotic solution and lower osmotic solutions
- Suspension stability- very stable in suspension due to repelling force of the same charge and bigger surface area
74
Carbon dioxide is carried as _____.
Carbaminohemoglobin
75
What proteins are responsible for the antiport transport of materials/exchange of proteins in RBCs?
Band 3 & 4.1 proteins
76
What supports the mobility and flexibility of the RBC membrane?
ankyrin bridge- links cytoplasmic protein (spectrin) with the membrane.
77
What does Hb stand for?
hemoglobin
78
What causes the repulsive force between RBCs and plasma proteins that prevents the RBCs from grouping at the capillary walls and remaining at the center of the blood?
The RBC membrane is negatively charged, and so is the membrane of the plasma proteins
79
What is the oxygen-carrying compound in the RBC?
hemoglobin
80
In mammals, how many heme molecules are in one hemoglobin?
4.
Each heme can carry a molecule of oxygen
81
What is the porphyrin ring?
1 heme:
A cluster of 4 Pyron molecules around an ion atom
82
Slide 65 structure of Hb label
83
In what state does the iron in Hb normally present?
An unstable, ferrous state
84
What is the symbol for the ferric state of iron?
Fe3+ (oxidized)
85
What is the symbol for the ferrous state of iron?
Fe2+ (unstable)
86
What is the pigment in Hb called?
porphyrin
87
Hb is formed by:
4 pyrol rings (tetrapyrole) I, II, III, IV
88
What terminal of each pyrold ring and globulin attach to an iron?
the N terminal
89
Acetate is produced from what to then enter the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl CoA
90
What is pyrrole formed from?
Two forms of α-ketoglutaric acid combined with glycine
91
What are the steps in the synthesis of Hb?
-
92
Ions are regulated strictly by _______.
The ion demand in the body
93
Where is heme biosynthesis completed? (star, intermediate, end)
- Starts: Mitochondria
- Intermediate 4 steps: Cytosol
- Ends: Mitochondria
94
How is heme synthesized?
95
Where is about ~85% of heme produced in the body?
The bone marrow
96
Where is cytochrome P450 synthesized?
The liver
97
Who breaks down RBCs and where?
Macrophages; spleen (red pulp)
98
What happens to iron after being broken down?
It is reused in the bone marrow
99
Go back to ion toxicity assignment, and parts that do what
100
What is the second most common respiratory pigment and in which species is it found?
Haemocyanin
Found in arthropods and mollusks (some bivalves, many gastropods, and cephalopods)
101
In what species are hemerythrins (oxygen carriers) found?
marine invertebrates (annelids, sipunculids, priapulids, and brachiopods)
It is pink in color
102
Where are chlorocruorins (oxygen carriers) found?
4 families of marine annelid worms
Green in color, similar structure to hemoglobin
103
What forms when Hb binds to O2?
oxyhemoglobin (O2 is attached to the Fe2+)
(no chemical reaction occurs, so iron is still in the ferrous state)
104
Cyanoglobin cannot be handled by the body. What is the less toxic compound that it tries to be converted into to be handled by the body?
Methemoglobin
less dangerous chemical, because the body can produce methemoglobin reductase to combat it
105
What are the normal hemoglobin levels in dogs?
12-18 g/dL (grams per deciliter)
106
What are the normal hemoglobin levels in cats?
8-15 g/dL (grams per deciliter)
107
What is measured to determine the oxygen-carrying capacity of RBCs?
hemoglobin
108
What is the RBC lifespan in dogs?
100-130 days
109
What is the RBC lifespan in cats?
70-80 days
110
What is hemolysis?
The destruction or breaking down of RBCs
111
What are some characteristics of **intravascular** hemolysis?
- abnormal, pathological
- Occurs inside the blood vessels
- free (excess) hemoglobin in plasma
- free hemoglobin in the urine
- iron-containing deposits in renal tubules
- **plasma attaches to haptoglobin**
- **Decrease in haptoglobin concentration in the plasma**
-Caused by mechanical damage, toxins, complement activation
112
What are some characteristics of **extravascular** hemolysis?
- normal
- Occurs outside the blood vessels, primarily in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow
- No hemoglobinemia or hemoglobinuria
- Increased indirect bilirubin
- Increased LDH and normal to slightly low haptoglobin.
-Caused by RBC membrane defects and autoantibodies
113
What is a band cell?
An immature form of neutrophils, also called band neutrophils
114
Which blood cell secretes histamine and heparin?
Basophils
115
What are RBCs removed by?
the phagocytic cells of the reticuloendothelial system (mononuclear phagocytic system, MPS)
Further broken down by macrophages
116
In which animals are reticulocytes USUALLY present in normal health?
Animals with an RBC lifespan of less than 100 days (cat, lamb, chicken). The dog is an exception to this
117
When RBCs are broken down extravasculary, what is released and broken down into what?
Hemoglobin is released and then broken down into heme and globin.
The globin is broken down by proteases into amino acids- which are absorbed by other cells and stored in their ribosomes
118
What is heme broken down into after its separation from globin?
tetrapyrrole ring and iron -> straight chain (biliverdin) -> bilirubin
119
What are kupffer cells?
Macrophages in the liver that destroy RBCs to release Hb
120
What converts biliverdin to bilirubin?
biliverdin reductase
121
come back to slide 80 abt bilirubin
122
What breaks Hb down into heme and globin?
hemoglobinase
123
In which species do you find Howell-Jolley bodies in at least 1 % of their normal erythrocytes?
Cats
124
What is basophilic stippling?
the presence of numerous basophilic granules that are dispersed through the cytoplasm of erythrocytes in a peripheral blood smear.
It represents the spontaneous aggregation of ribosomal RNA in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes
125
What are siderocytes?
Anucleate erythrocytes with iron-containing
(siderotic) cytoplasmic inclusions.
126
What is rouleau? What animals have this feature?
The stacking of RBCs that resembles coins.
Horses, pigs, and sheep
127
What is anisocytosis? What animals have it?
RBCs occurring in different sizes.
Cattle, sheep, and goats.
128
What is poikilocytosis? What animal has this feature?
Different shaped RBCs.
Goats
129
What is PCV?
Packed cell volume
The % volume of the total; number of RBCs when they are sedimented and packed together.
130
What does a PCV of less than 40 in a dog or less than 29 in a cat indicate?
An anemic state or overhydration
131
What does a PCV of more than 59 in the dog or 50 in the cat indicate?
Polycythaemia (erythrocytosis) or dehydration
132
How do you calculate MCV? (mean corpuscular volume)
What is it?
PCV/ TRBC x 10
(answer is in fl), and millions in TRBC are accounted for
The ratio of packed cell volume(PCV) and total red blood cell (TRBC).
133
How do you calculate MCH? (mean corpuscular hemoglobin)
What does it meaure?
Hb x 10/TRBC
or
Hb (mg/dl)/TRBC x 10
(answer is in picograms)
Amount of haemoglobin in average red blood cell.
134
How do you calculate MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations)
What does it measure?
Hb/PCV % x 100
or
Hb/PCV (decimal form)
(answer is in %)
Amount of hemoglobin per unit volume of fluid inside the cell.
135
What is the normal ESR range for dogs?
0-20 mm/hr
usually lower in healthy dogs, higher indicated inflammation or disease
136
What is the normal ESR range for cats?
0-5 mm/hr
vert slow ESR due to small, dense RBCs
137
What is anemia?
Low concentration of hemoglobin in the blood
138
What are some causes of anemia?
Blood loss
excessive hemolysis
non-formation of erythrocytes
139
What are the four characteristic types of anemia?
Normocytic normochromic
microcytic hypochromic
macrocytic hypochromic
macrocytic hyperchromic
140
What is the relationship between increased hemolytic anemia and the formation of gallstones in animals?
141
What are the 2 classifications of polycythemia?
Relative (false incr.)
Absolute (real incr.)
-primary & secondary
142
What is polychromasia?
An occurrence of red blood cells of different colors, mainly due to a combination of mature and mature red blood cells in circulation.
143
What is the normal WBC count in dogs?
144
What is the normal WBC count in cats?
145
What is the normal RBC count in dogs?
146
What is the normal RBC count in cats?
147
What is the normal total protein level in dogs?
5.0-7.4 gm/dL
148
What is the normal total protein level in cats?
5.2-8.8 gm/dL
149
What are the normal blood glucose levels in dogs?
80-150 mg/dL
150
What are the normal blood glucose levels in cats?
64-170 mg/dL
151
In bacterial infections, leukocytes (especially neutrophils) may be _____ greatly.
increased
152
In viral diseases, the number of leucocytes( especially neutrophils) will _______.
decrease
153
How are leukocytes usually found in the circulating blood?
- marginated (WBC)
- passing slowly along the endothelial lining
154
What are eosinophils?
Granulated leukocytes that inhibit allergic reactions induced by basophils by producing PGE
155
Which animal has the largest erythrocyte?
Dog
156
Which animal has the smallest erythrocyte?
Goats
157
return to slide 118-120
158
What is the least common leukocyte?
Basophil
159
What is the most abundant arganulocyte?
Lymphocytes
-more numerous in cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and chickens
160
T lymphocytes are ____% of circulating lympohocytes
85%
161
What is the physiological difference between the T and B lymphocytes?
slides 122- 131
162
What are cytokines?
Groups of hormone-like, low molecular-weight proteins secreted by various cell types
they regulate the intensity and duration of immune response and mediate cell-to-cell communication
163
Whata re glucocorticoides?
164
What are interferons?
A group of proteins (glycoproteins) with antiviral properties.
Produced by lymphocytes (helper) and other cell types
(inhibit viral RNA and DNA replication, mark cancer cells)
165
Slide 135
166
What is the function of WBCs? What are examples of WBCs?
Protection
execute specific and non-specific immune reactions.
Neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil, monocyte, lymphocyte
167
What is a differential LC (leukocyte)shift to the **left**?
An increase in the number of immature neutrophils (band cells) in the circulating blood
- response to infection
168
What is a differential LC (leukocyte) shift to the **right**?
A reduced count of band cells in the circulating blood compared to mature neutrophils.
- greater hyper segmentation or lobulation of the nucleus
169
What is Leukocytosiss?
An increase in TWBC
170
What is Leukopaenia?
A decrease in TWBC
171
What is neutrophilia?
An increase in neutrophils
172
What is Neutropaenia?
A decrease in neutrophils
173
What are monocytosis, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, and lymphopenia?
A decreased number of lymphocytes
174
What is hemostasis?
The process of blood clotting and then the subsequent dissolution of the clot
175
What are the 4 stages of Hemostasis (blood coagulation)?
- Platelet reaction
- vascular reaction
- clotting
- fibrinolysis
176
What activates the platelets once they adhered?
von-Willebrand factor (vWF)
it is secreted by the site
177
Which blood clotting factor must be activated for clotting to occur?
Factor X
178
What is the role of platelets during coagulation?
Clot formation at the site of vessel injury
179
What is the function of vWF?
To act as a bridge between glycoprotein on the surface of platelets (GPIb/IX) and collagen fibrils.
Serves as a carrier protein for factor VIII
180
What is aggregation?
When activated platelets aggregate together
181
What ligand stimulates platelets to become active by producing second messengers such as inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol ( DAG)?
Thrombin
182
What are the three phases of hemostasis (stoppage of bleeding)?
platelet plug formation
vasoconstriction
formation of blood clot
183
What is primary hemostasis?
Formation of a platelet plus around the site of the injured blood vessel
184
What is secondary hemostasis?
Reinforces the platelet plug with the creation of protein mesh (fibrin)
185
Once factor X is activated what happens?
Prothrombin is converted to thrombin
186
Once thrombin is activated what happens?
Fibrinogen is converted to Fibrin. Positive feedback to factor XI.
187
What is the function of Protein C? What is involved in becoming activated?
Degrade phospholipid-bound activated factors V and VIII in the presence of calcium (Inhibit coagulation). Thrombomodulin and Protein S.
188
What are other inhibitors of coagulation?
Antithrombin III
Heparin
Calcium ions precipitants
EDTA
Potassium Oxalate, fluorides
189
What is fibrinolysis?
Process of dissolving of fibrin
190
What is the main component that dissolves the clot during fibrinolysis?
Plasmin
191
192
What does plasmin activate?
The conversion of fibrin to fibrin degradation factors
193
What is the most common blood type in cats?
A
194
Do cats have a universal donor?
no
195
What is the universal donor in dogs?
DEA 1.1 negative
196
What is the universal receiver in dogs?
DEA 1.1 positive
197
What is an ankyrin bridge?
A connection between the cytoskeleton and the cell membrane of red blood cells
198
What are some vascular reactions that occur during blood clotting?
- Inward rolling of the inner layers of the BV
- Elastic retraction of the vascular wall
- Vasoconstriction, caused by reflex sympathetic discharge because of pain or local myogenic contraction
- Serotonin and thromboxane A2 released from the platelets
199
Most blood vessels are supplied by which nerve? What is it known to cause?
The sympathetic nerve.
It is known to cause vasoconstriction via the release of norepinephrine or noradrenaline.
200
What is the role of aspirin in the platelet plug?
reduces blood platelet population by destroying them (controls hemorrhage) the prevents blood clotting
201
Is prostacyclin production increased or reduced during vasodilation?
reduced
202
What is platelet factor 3?
A group of phospholipids which provide a catalytic surface for activation of the clotting factor V and II
203
Which platelet factors help coagulation?
3 & 4
204
What does platelet factor 4 do?
It neutralizes heparin
205
What activated factor V?
Thrombin
206
What does clotting factor V (Proaccelerin) do?
It binds to activated platelets to prepare them for thrombin and helps activate factor X.
207
Why is there no factor 6 in blood clotting?
It acts exactly the same as factor 5 (V)
208
What are the major purposes of the blood clotting cascade?
The activation of factor X (Stuart) FX -> FXa
Activation of prothrombin to thrombin
Formation of fibrin clot by the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin
209
What are the 2 pathways in blood clotting?
Extrinsic (factors come from tissues)
Intrinsic (factors come from blood)
210
What happens in the extrinsic pathway of the blood clotting cascade?
- Factor 3 (tissue factor) is activated
- Factor 7 is activated
- FIIIa + FVIIa complex (extrinsic tenase complex)
- Complex activates FX -> FXa
211
What happens in the Intrinsic pathway of the blood clotting cascade?
- FVIII -> FVIIIa
- FIX -> FIX
- FVIII & FIX complex
- in the presence of the calcium ion and phospholipids on the membrane of platelets, it forms the intrinsic tenase pathway
- FX -> FXa
212
How is Factor IX activated?
- Factor XIII is activated
- FXII + Kallikrein -> FXIIa
- FXI -> FXIa
- FIX -> FIXa
Chain reaction
213
What does FXa combine with to create the prothrombinase complex?
FXa + FVa + Ca2+ + PL
214
What does the prothrombinase complex do?
Converts prothrombin to thrombin
215
What converts fibrogen to fibrin?
Thrombin
216
What converts fibrin to a stable fibrous substance (clot)?
F13 (fibrin stabilizing factor)
217
What are the 3 types of cofactors?
- Organic
- Inorganic
- Vitamins (Vitamin K for blood clotting)
218
Blood clotting cascade
yeah
219
What are some inhibitors of coagulation?
Antithrombin III- Inhibits active sites of F9a, F10a, F12a, and thrombin
Protein C- degrades phospholipid-bound activated factors 5 and 8 in the presence of calcium
Protein S- Cofactor to protein C by enhancing the binding of activated protein C to negatively charged phospholipids
220
I stopped at 168- plz continue later >n<
