PL1030: Biological Psychology Flashcards

Question

What is the Forebrain and what structure does it include

Answer 1

Thalamus, hypothalamus and pituitary gland (next to which we can find the amygdala), basal ganglia

Answer 2

thalamus and hypothalamus form the diencephalon, a section distinct from the telencephalon

Answer 3

interlinked structure under the cerebral cortex forming a border around the brain stem

Answer 4

controlling eating, drinking, temperature control, and reproductive behaviours.

Answer 5

evaluating emotional (fear) information

Answer 6

sensory processing, not olfactory, direct to the cortex

Answer 7

1. subsections of the ectoderm *Surface ecto: nails, hair, skin * Neural ecto: neural tube, crest 2. endoderm --> mucosa of gastro/respiratory system and abdominal organs 3. mesoderm --> * Paraxial: skeleton/muscles; * Intermediate: urogenital, kidneys; Lateral plate: limb skeleton, muscular wall

Answer 8

← form glioblasts (support cells/ Schwann cells), neurons, ependymal cells ← differentiate ventricular layer of spinal chord ← pia mater ← neuroepithelial cells

Answer 9

* Spinal Chord: neural plate * Dorsal root ganglia: ← neural crest cells ← neural ectoderm→ central canal: ventricular layer→ * grey matter: neuronal bodies ← mantle layer of the neural plate → * white matter: axons ← marginal layer*

Answer 10

Zygote (linear)/ germ disc (trilaminar meso-ecto-endo) → epiblast cells replace hypoblast → proliferate to form mesoderm → 2nd onwards there is superior lining on the thicked region of the ectoderm notochord due to gastrulation → grows in the direction of the tail (caudal) and induces the notochord formation → ectoderm invaginates (ventral sucilus) → neurolation (folding of the neural plate via notochord induction)

Answer 11

* eukaryotic: membrane-enclosed DNA inside the nucleus ; membrane-bound organelles of varying shapes and sizes * prokaryotic: no membrane-bound DNA and no other membrane-bound organelles

Answer 12

Research field in which particular cells are stimulated through light * Psychiatric and medical disorders (narcolepsy) because controlling excitatory and inhibitory functions can be seen/measured

Answer 13

distinguish between wakefulness and sleep stages, if measured repeatedly also for epilepsy; evoked potentials/responses in children that cannot

Answer 14

Shows temporal changes accurately in 1ms; can identify the amount of time an area responds which forms a wave from point of origin to processing areas

Answer 15

Cyclotron * radioactive glucose (a sugar) is injected into a vein → PET measures where glucose is used as an indicator of brain activity → radioactive atom enhancement decays and releases positron → positron collides with neighbouring neurons by sending two gamma rays in the opposite direction → PET measures how much radioactive chemicals are in one area from the middle of the two gamma rays

Answer 16

expensive , inaccessible and potentially dangerous

Answer 17

MRI records energy released by water molecules after removal of a magnetic field and fMRI does the same for hemoglobin which binds to oxygen whereby hemoglobin with and without oxygen react differently to fMRIs

Answer 18

* Brain activity increases blood flow, aka more haemoglobin to react to, increases oxygen use, so amount of haemoglobin without oxygen decreases → measuring people falling asleep * Scans (need more data) + interpretation is difficult (researchers take mean activity, reduce certain areas to their reaction during a task)

Answer 19

Inferring brain functions and behaviour form skull

Answer 20

Device with an electrode tip which is inserted into a hole in the skull and passes an electrical current in then damaged brain area

Answer 21

Electric - most damaging to axons and neuronsChemical - more common because it either damages, temporarily suspends neurons or synapsesGene-knockout approach - induce a mutation in a gene regulating neural cells, transmitters or receptors

Answer 22

Magnetic stimulation is applied to the scalp whereby stong stimulation produces a virtual lesion as it deactivates neurons below the magnets --> allows non invasive study of lesions on brain-behaviour link

Answer 23

branching fibers that get narrower near their ends (etym: tree) that are lined with specialised synaptic receptors that receive information*

Answer 24

Any peripheral nerve that has its central nervous system connection with the brain, as opposed to the spinal cord.

Answer 25

Vertebrate axons are covered with myelin sheaths interrupted by nodes of Ravier (connected to the spine) while invertebrates do not have that

Answer 26

Determines function and connective strength more area covered more informational input and output *

Answer 27

Glia (etym. Glue of neurons old) outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas (cerebellum)

Answer 28

A brain lesion produced by intracerebral injection of an excitatory amino acid, such as kainic acid.

Answer 29

Brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain.

Answer 30

The junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery. *

Answer 31

A collection of drawings of sections of the brain of a particular animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery.

Answer 32

A chemical such as formalin; used to prepare and preserve body tissue. formalin (for ma /in) The aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas; the most commonly used tissue fixative.

Answer 33

A device that permits a surgeon to position an electrode or cannula into a specific part of the brain.

Answer 34

An instrument that produces very thin slices of body tissues.

Answer 35

A histological method that labels the axons and terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region. *

Answer 36

A histological method that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of particular proteins of peptides. *

Answer 37

A histological method that labels cell bodies that give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region.*

Answer 38

A tracing method that identifies a series of neurons that form serial synaptic connections with each other, either in an anterograde or retrograde direction; involves infection of specific neurons with weakened forms of rabies or herpes viruses*

Answer 39

The use of a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into the membrane of particular neurons in the brain; can depolarize or hyperpolarize the neurons when light of the appropriate wavelength is applied. *

Answer 40

A very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons.

Answer 41

Recording of the electrical activity of a single neuron.

Answer 42

Forced swim, tail suspension and learned helplessness tests. Tests of anhedonia (for example, sucrose preference, social interaction and sexual behaviour). * Diverse tests of attention, working memory and episodic memory or prepulse inhibition.

Answer 43

A: The transgenic mouse models meet some criteria for face and predictive validity, but not construct validity

Answer 44

1. Injecting animals with a known genetic mutation linked to the disease → not possible 2. Altering the expression of proteins hypothesised to lead to disease pathogenesis → lack of human evidence Exposure to validated environmental risk factors → not as straightforward 3. how penetrant a given genetic variant is in producing a disorder/ how clearly linked; lack of human evidence for common genetic variants being irrefutably linked to mental health conditions*

Answer 45

nucleus accumbens

Answer 46

Although CT is used for structural/anatomical imaging of the brain, it requires X-rays - this is not the most suitable to be used in child and multiple times during development.

Answer 47

communicate between the two hemispheres

Answer 48

meningees > dura > arachnoidea > pia

Answer 49

EEG - TMS machine- PET -- FMRI -- CT and CT scan -- MEG scan

Answer 50

blocks reuptake of dopamine and other transmitters

Answer 51

blocks reuptake of dopamine and other transmitters

Answer 52

gradually blocks dopamine reuptake

Answer 53

releases dopamine and serotonin

Answer 54

stimulates acetylcholine receptors which among other effects increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

Answer 55

stimulates endorphin receptors

Answer 56

triggers negative feedback receptors, which usually respond to anandamide and 2AG on presynaptic cells

Answer 57

Stimulates serotonin type 2A receptors (5-HT2a)

Answer 58

transmitters: presynaptic terminal peptides: cell body

Answer 59

* transmitters: axon ending * peptides: from dendrites, soma, and sides of axon

Answer 60

* transmitters: single action potential * peptides: repeated depolarisation

Answer 61

* transmitters: no effect * peptides: they also release peptides

Answer 62

* transmitters: to receptors of adjacent postsynaptic cells * peptides: diffuse to wide areas

Answer 63

* transmitters: milliseconds to seconds * peptides: minutes

Answer 64

* eukaryotic: membrane-enclosed DNA inside the nucleus ; membrane-bound organelles of varying shapes and sizes * prokaryotic: no membrane-bound DNA and no other membrane-bound organelles

Answer 65

hydrophobic tails of phospholipids that are the interior of the membrane while their polar head group are seperated by the inner hydrophobic lipid chain portion --> impermeability to hydrophilic molecules, viscosity that allows proteins and phospholipids to move freely

Answer 66

can insert itself into the phospholipid bilayer because of its polar hydroxyl group at the end of the phospholipid head group * High temperature: reduces permeability by hindering the movement of phospholipid of the outer part * Low temperature: prevents membranes from freezing and maintains membrane fluidity by interfering with interactions between fatty acid chains

Answer 67

* plasma membrane as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. * Carbohydrates attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane

Answer 68

Charles Sherrington: synapse guy * Santiago Ramón y Cajal: neurons exist as separate units guy

Answer 69

Red blood cells

Answer 70

controlled flow of water, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and other important chemicals

Answer 71

Membranous network studded with ribosomes involved in protein synthesis

Answer 72

Membrane enclosed organelle responsible for generating chemical energy

Answer 73

Membranous network involved in lipid synthesis, regulation of calcium and metabolism of carbohydrates

Answer 74

Contains enzymes to remove waste

Answer 75

Within the nucleus composed of proteins and nucleic acids

Answer 76

Sorts and chemically modifies proteins for specific uses

Answer 77

Made up a of different types of tube-like structures responsible for maintaining shape of cell

Answer 78

Ribonucleic acids and proteins in the cytoplasm involved in manufacture of proteins

Answer 79

Research field in which particular cells are stimulated through light * Psychiatric and medical disorders (narcolepsy) because controlling excitatory and inhibitory functions can be seen/measured

Answer 80

The end bulb of each dendrite releases chemicals and electrical signals to communicate with other neurons or cells via their postsynaptic bulbs

Answer 81

Determines function and connective strength more area covered more informational input and output *

Answer 82

Glia (etym. Glue of neurons old) outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas (cerebellum)

Answer 83

Synapses = junctions between neurons allowing communicationelectrical synapses = fast but rarely in the brainchemical synapses: most common in the brain; slow in signalling, but more diverse functions

Answer 84

chemical messengers that allow the transmission of signals across chemical synapses

Answer 85

Dendrites, soma (cell body), axon, and presynaptic endings

Answer 86

viruses> Rabies, spirochete → syphilis Actively transported: * Glucose (fuel)amino acids (protein building blocks) * Water: through protein channels in the plasma membrane of endothelial cells purines, choline, a few vitamins, iron, hormones and insulin* *

Answer 87

the mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain is needed because neurons cannot be replaced. When there is an infection there antibodies could potentially distroy neurons like they do in other parts of the body but skin cells or blood cells can be renewed.

Answer 88

endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries, which do not let viruses nor nutrients pass depending on their ability to dissolve

Answer 89

fat-soluble molecules (vitamins, drugs), small uncharged molecules oxygen & carbon dioxide

Answer 90

Capillary walls are weakenedTreatment molecules cannot pass

Answer 91

25% of body’s glucose, 20% of oxygen because of energy metabolisation;

Answer 92

glucose is the only nutrient that crosses the blood–brain barrier in large quantities

Answer 93

from many kinds of carbohydrates and amino acids, as well as from glycerol, a breakdown product from fats but the issue then becomes the lack of vitamin B (thiamine)

Answer 94

leads to death of neurons and a condition called Korsakoff’s syndrome, marked by severe memory impairments. (common in alcoholism)

Answer 95

30 times slower

Answer 96

Infection, trauma, stroke

Answer 97

Astrocytes attach to blood vessels and inducing their endothelial cells to form tight junctions that reinforce the blood-brain barrier and prevent moluclues passing into the cerebral fluid

Answer 98

regulate abnormal accumulation of extracellular potassium ions→ link to epileptic activity

Answer 99

transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into the cell → sodium 10x outside the cell

Answer 100

Being positively charged, the potassium leak through the membrane even when the gates are shut which increases the electrical gradient

Answer 101

Sodium (positive Na+) more concentrated outside but negative electrical gradient to the insidePotassium (K+) more concentrated inside so wants to leave but electrical gradient draws them back → almost balanced

Answer 102

resting potential prepares the neuron to respond rapidly

Answer 103

Calcium, sodium channels and potassium channels open → potassium are not girlbosses so nothing happens → sodium channels open so sodium rushes into the axon → positive charge propergates → sodium is me in therapy (shuts down) at the peak of depolarisation but potassium channels stay opened and potassium flows out → depolarised and potassium channels close

Answer 104

1.At the start, sodium ions are mostly outside the neuron, and potassium ions are mostly inside. 2. When the membrane is depolarized, sodium and potassium channels in the membrane open. 3. At the peak of the action potential, the sodium channels close.

Answer 105

Saves energy by only letting sodium ions into the nodes of the myelinated part and not at every point of the axon

Answer 106

A: the immune system attacks myelin sheaths → impairments in conducting action potentials and various symptoms including visual impairments and poor muscle coordination.

Answer 107

Needed for the trade-off between stimulated muscles and the rest * Sensory input in one part leads to EPSP → to counterbalance

Answer 108

<15m/s while axon communication is 40m/s * Interneuronal space communication slows speed down → synapses are responsible

Answer 109

Repeated stimuli in short time accumulates → graded potential is created (EPSP/depolarisation) → exceeds the threshold in the postsynaptic neuron if not the excitation decays over time

Answer 110

Synaptic input from different locations synchronised (different sensory axons) → EPSP can sum up

Answer 111

Summation effects vary on the order of sensory input

Answer 112

Inhibitory synapses are a testament of the connections at the spinal chord (when EPSP is triggered in one part an IPSP needs to occur somewhere else) and that muscles counterbalance each other*

Answer 113

Postsynaptic cell needs to be hyperpolarised → +potassium channels open and + leaves the cell → or -choloride ions enter the cell *

Answer 114

Loewi stimulated a frogs vagus nerve → slows heartbeat and then transferred the fluid around the heart to another frog also slowed heart in second frog → most synapse communicate chemically

Answer 115

Neuron synthesises chemicals → neurotransmitters → also in axon terminals/ neuropeptides in cell body → action potential propagates and calcium releases neurotransmitters in the terminals into the synaptic cleft → travel to the postsynaptic neuron → neurotransmitter separate from receptors and are potentially returned to presynaptic neuron → postsynaptic neuron communicates with presynapse to control neurotransmitters

Answer 116

Chemicals produced and released by neurons around 100 most shared gaba is the oldest;

Answer 117

Monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibiting the production of neurons that release serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine by breaking them into nonfuctioning units → used as basis for antidepressants

Answer 118

Glutamate * most inhibitory ionotropic synapses function with GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), opening chloride gates to have -chloride in the cells * Glycine mostly in spinal cordAcetycholine mostly excitatory ionotropic synapses

Answer 119

Sequence of metabolic effects after 30ms not 5ms: smell, pain,taste, arousal, emotion Don’t depend on GABA or glutamine, but a lot of different NTs First messenger aka NT binds at receptor → otherside connected with a guanosine triphosphate G-protein releases energy → more second messengers

Answer 120

Neuromodulators different function to neurotransmitters, similar to hormones in producing longer lasting effects by alterning gene activity

Answer 121

Acetylcholine GABA Serotonine Dopamine Norepinephrine Epinephrine

Answer 122

* Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) * Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Answer 123

1. record from electrodes in the brain 2. electroencephalograph (EEG) 3. evoked potentials 4. magnetoencephalograph (MEG) 5. positron emission tomography (PET) 6. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Answer 124

stimulating electrodes

Answer 125

evoked potentials

Answer 126

CAT | uses X-rays

Answer 127

record from electrodesin the brain

Answer 128

optogenetic stimulation

Answer 129

transcranial magnetic stimulation

Answer 130

Investigating Brain Damage * observing effects of deliberate stimulation TMS

Answer 131

Research field in which particular cells are stimulated through light * Psychiatric and medical disorders (narcolepsy) because controlling excitatory and inhibitory functions can be seen/measured

Answer 132

distinguish between wakefulness and sleep stages, if measured repeatedly also for epilepsy; evoked potentials/responses in children that cannot

Answer 133

Shows temporal changes accurately in 1ms; can identify the amount of time an area responds which forms a wave from point of origin to processing areas

Answer 134

Cyclotron * radioactive glucose (a sugar) is injected into a vein → PET measures where glucose is used as an indicator of brain activity → radioactive atom enhancement decays and releases positron → positron collides with neighbouring neurons by sending two gamma rays in the opposite direction → PET measures how much radioactive chemicals are in one area from the middle of the two gamma rays

Answer 135

expensive , inaccessible and potentially dangerous

Answer 136

MRI records energy released by water molecules after removal of a magnetic field and fMRI does the same for hemoglobin which binds to oxygen whereby hemoglobin with and without oxygen react differently to fMRIs

Answer 137

* Brain activity increases blood flow, aka more haemoglobin to react to, increases oxygen use, so amount of haemoglobin without oxygen decreases → measuring people falling asleep * Scans (need more data) + interpretation is difficult (researchers take mean activity, reduce certain areas to their reaction during a task)

Answer 138

Inferring brain functions and behaviour form skull

Answer 139

Device with an electrode tip which is inserted into a hole in the skull and passes an electrical current in then damaged brain area

Answer 140

Electric - most damaging to axons and neuronsChemical - more common because it either damages, temporarily suspends neurons or synapsesGene-knockout approach - induce a mutation in a gene regulating neural cells, transmitters or receptors

Answer 141

Magnetic stimulation is applied to the scalp whereby stong stimulation produces a virtual lesion as it deactivates neurons below the magnets --> allows non invasive study of lesions on brain-behaviour link

Answer 142

A brain lesion produced by intracerebra l injection of an excitatory amino acid, such as kainic acid.

Answer 143

Brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain.

Answer 144

The junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery. *

Answer 145

A collection of drawings of sections of the brain ofa particular animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery.

Answer 146

A chemical such as formalin; used to prepare and preserve body tissue. formalin (for ma /in) The aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas; the most commonly used tissue fixative.

Answer 147

A device that permits a surgeon to position an electrode or cannula into a specific part of the brain.

Answer 148

An instrument that produces very thin slices of body tissues.

Answer 149

A histological method that labels the axons and terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region. *

Answer 150

A histological method that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of particular proteins of peptides. *

Answer 151

A histological method that labels cell bodies that give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region.*

Answer 152

A tracing method that identifies a series of neurons that form serial synaptic connections with each other, either in an anterograde or retrograde direction; involves infection of specific neurons with weakened forms of rabies or herpes viruses*

Answer 153

The use of a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into the membrane of particular neurons in the brain; can depolarize or hyperpolarize the neurons when light of the appropriate wavelength is applied. *

Answer 154

A very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons.

Answer 155

Recording of the electrical activity of a single neuron.

Answer 156

Forced swim, tail suspension and learned helplessness tests. Tests of anhedonia (for example, sucrose preference, social interaction and sexual behaviour). * Diverse tests of attention, working memory and episodic memory or prepulse inhibition.

Answer 157

A: Behavioural assays are used to assess the face validity of animal models of schizophrenia.

Answer 158

Assays based on acute stress procedures or anxiety-like behaviour might be useful in initial screens, but such screens should not be used as definitive evidence of a depression phenotype. Greater focus on anhedonia and homeostatic symptoms and broadening the scope of these assays would add a useful objective dimension to rodent studies.

Answer 159

A: The transgenic mouse models meet some criteria for face and predictive validity, but not construct validity

Answer 160

1. Injecting animals with a known genetic mutation linked to the disease → not possible 2. Altering the expression of proteins hypothesised to lead to disease pathogenesis → lack of human evidence Exposure to validated environmental risk factors → not as straightforward 3. how penetrant a given genetic variant is in producing a disorder/ how clearly linked; lack of human evidence for common genetic variants being irrefutably linked to mental health conditions*

Answer 161

Although CT is used for structural/anatomical imaging of the brain, it requires X-rays - this is not the most suitable to be used in child and multiple times during development.

Answer 162

reflex control of pupil and lens

Answer 163

orienting the movements of headand eyes

Answer 164

regulates the circadian rhythms

Answer 165

* Rods in the periphery and in between the fovea and blind spot * Cones in the fovea

Answer 166

A and D | also light sensitivity

Answer 167

the reduced activity in one neuron induced by a neighbouring neuron that is active

Answer 168

a| receives input directly from the receptors

Answer 169

optic nerve

Answer 170

blind spot

Answer 171

rule that whatever excites a nerve always sends the same information to the brain

Answer 172

type of neuron in the retina that receives input from the bipolar cells

Answer 173

area at the back of the retina devoid of receptors

Answer 174

midget ganglion cell

Answer 175

photopigment

Answer 176

type of cell that receives input from receptors and delivers inhibitory input to *

Answer 177

lateral geniculate nucleus

Answer 178

area in visual space that excites or inhibits any neuron

Answer 179

parvocellular neuron

Answer 180

magnocellular neuron

Answer 181

primary visual cortex (area V1)

Answer 182

cell that has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones

Answer 183

ability to respond in limited ways to visual information without perceiving it consciously

Answer 184

cell that responds to a bar-shaped pattern of light in a particular orientation

Answer 185

condition in which the eyes do not point in the same direction

Answer 186

daytime lighting, or photopic conditions. 3 types of cones (with different photopigments)

Answer 187

* nighttime lighting, or scotopic conditions. * Higher photopigment concentration. * More sensitive to light * (with different photopigments)

Answer 188

There are no rods in the central fovea, but there are manymore rods than cones in the peripheral retina

Answer 189

In rod cells in the dark, sodium-potassium-pump is in a depolarised state due to cGMP (glutamate release) --> When light hits rhodopsin channel, it activates transducin --> activates phosphodiesterase --> phosphodiesterase breaks down cGMP --> hyperpolarised cell + decreased glutamate release --> light stimulus! so rhodopsin is inactivated and via arrestin bound to rhodopsin transducin is blocked --> cell becomes depolarised + glutamate release until the next light impulse hits

Answer 190

People with certain genes fail to develop one type of cone,or develop an abnormal type of cone.

Answer 191

The gene causing red-green colordeficiency, is on the X chromosome.*

Answer 192

* Ventral stream (towards temporal cortex): identifying and recognizing objects and faces. * Dorsal stream (towards parietal cortex): important for identifying where the objects are.

Answer 193

: inferior temporal cortex recognizes objects -->

Answer 194

happens when the inferior temporal cortex is damaged and inhibits object recognition

Answer 195

recognising faces --> damage: prosopagnosia

Answer 196

Area MT: middle temporal cortex (=V5 area) --> responsible for processing visuospatial motion: inability to perceive or detect motion

Answer 197

loss of color vision at the corresponding location in the visual field, visual attention and object recognition issues

Answer 198

middle superior temporal cortex * Motion perception * Damage leads to motion blindness

Answer 199

* nighttime lighting, or scotopic conditions. Higherphotopigment concentration. More sensitive to light.

Answer 200

* daytime lighting, or photopic conditions. 3 types of cones (with different photopigments)

Answer 201

1. Eye 2. Optic nerve 3. Optic chiasm 4. Hypothalamus 5. Optic tract 6. Pretectum 7. Superior colliculus 8. Lateral geniculate nucleus 9. Optic radiation 10. Striate cortex

Answer 202

I'd see the right visual hemisfield only with the left eye and the left visual hemisfield only with the right eye

Answer 203

We perceive colour through the relative rates of response by three kinds of cones, each one maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths.

Answer 204

Image as viewed by an observer lacking green cones (deuteranomaly)

Answer 205

Image as viewed by an observer lacking blue cones (tritanopia)

Answer 206

Image as viewed by an observer lacking red cones (protanopia)

Answer 207

The gene causing red-green color deficiency, is on the X chromosome.

Answer 208

decibels (dB)

Answer 209

the rate at which sound waves oscillateX= hertz (Hz)

Answer 210

* the pinna * auditory canal

Answer 211

* ossicles * tympanic membrane

Answer 212

* oval window * cochlea * auditory vestibular nerve

Answer 213

crucial for the transduction of mechanical stimuli (sound waves) into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain, enabling us to hear and perceive sound.

Answer 214

The intracellular release of calium during depolarisation also controls the potassium channels

Answer 215

0-200db/20-20.000Hz 20-50db for Normal Speech

Answer 216

Sound waves gathered into the outer ear aretransduced from air pressure into mechanicalenergy in the middle-ear ossicles (the hammer,anvil, and stirrup) and into electrochemicalactivity in the inner-ear cochlea.

Answer 217

brains give more credit to visual information than to auditory input

Answer 218

* Sound waves gathered into the outer ear aretransduced from air pressure into mechanicalenergy in the middle-ear ossicles (the hammer,anvil, and stirrup) and into electrochemicalactivity in the inner-ear cochlea.

Answer 219

sound is split

Answer 220

The basilar membrane senses different sound frequencies at specific locations. * Low-frequency sounds: The membrane vibrates in synchrony with the sound waves. * The number of firing cells identifies loudness

Answer 221

From the base to the apex of the cochlea, the basilar membrane resonates with increasingly lower frequencies. This tonotopy is preserved in the auditory nerve and cochlear nucleus.

Answer 222

Across three domains: * Difference in time of arrival * Difference in intensity between the ears (sound shadow) * Phase difference between the ears

Answer 223

Hearing loss is the third most common condition among older adults * 25-40% of people over 65 years old * 50% of people over 75 * 80% of people over 85

Answer 224

Diseases, infections, or tumorous bone growth can prevent the middle ear from transmitting sound waves properly to the cochlea. It includes all pathologies in the external and middle ear.

Answer 225

Nerve deafness: damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve (disease, exposure to loud noises)

Answer 226

Age-Related Hearing Loss

Answer 227

Degeneration of the sensory cells in the cochlea, supportingcells and auditory nerve; brain areas responsible for languagecomprehension become less active, decreased attentionalcapacities

Answer 228

medical device that uses electricity tostimulate the spiral ganglion cells of the auditory nerve torestore sensorineural hearing loss

Answer 229

Listening to speech activates extensive areas in the temporal lobe, with the activation strongly biased toward the left hemisphere * Early organization of auditory areas and lateralization for language similar to adults.

Answer 230

Significant increase in performance for the native-language contrast in the first year * Decline in nonnative perception over the same time period *

Answer 231

Nonmusicians showed larger activity on the right than the left hemisphere, whereas musicians showed symmetrical activation

Answer 232

Difficulty paying attention simultaneouslyto stimuli of the same modality (e.g.,two auditory stimuli or two visual stimuli)

Answer 233

* The simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to the right and the left ears.

Answer 234

* The cocktail party effect is the selective enhancement of processing resources for a particular target in a noisy environment. Despite high levels of background noise, we can focus on what someone is saying because paying close attention to them enhances our processing of their speech and helps filter out distractors. It works by maintaining the focus of our attention on a single speech source, with extra clues in different sensory modalities, such as the spatial origin of speech sounds, the movements of the speaker's face, and their unique tone of voice.

Answer 235

cognitive process that allows us to overtly direct our senses and awareness to specific stimuli due to the frontoparietal and temporoparietal network

Answer 236

→ enhanced processing, learning

Answer 237

= involuntarily

Answer 238

selection and vigilance

Answer 239

different brain areas and networks are activated across different processes of attention

Answer 240

Brain damage

Answer 241

Damage to one hemisphere of the brain can induce deficits in attention and awareness on the opposite side of the field of vision

Answer 242

Attention is the process by which we select or focus on one or more specific stimuli for enhanced processing and analysis. It is the selective quality of attention that distinguishes it from the related concept of arousal, which is the global level of alertness of the individual.

Answer 243

Yes, attention can be directed covertly. In classic research, Hermann von Helmholtz showed that we can keep our eyes fixed on one location while "secretly" scrutinising some other location in peripheral vision.

Answer 244

A: Conjunction search is a type of visual search where a person is searching for a target item on the basis of two or more features that together distinguish the target from distracters that may share some of the same attributes. Performance on conjunction searches is directly related to the number of distracters present, and the search involves coordinating multiple cognitive feature maps that overlap with each other, with each map focused on one particular stimulus attribute. This idea is called feature integration theory.

Answer 245

A: Feature search is a type of visual search where a person is looking for a target item that is different from all the distractors in some fundamental way. For example, searching for a friend in a red coat in a crowd of dark-suited businesspeople. This type of visual search is known as a feature search because the target feature "pops out" immediately and the search seems effortless.

Answer 246

A: Voluntary and reflexive attention normally work together in cognition, probably relying on somewhat overlapping neural mechanisms. In single-mindedly searching for specific items (an example of voluntarily controlled attention), a person can be very focused. But even slight noises and movements (cues that reflexively capture attention) can cause a person to stop and scan their surroundings. Effective cues for reflexive attention can cross the boundaries between different sensory modalities in order to aid the processing of stimuli.

Answer 247

A: The two important effects seen in such experiments are: 1) a valid cue captures attention and enhances processing of subsequent stimuli in the target location, but only when the interval between cue and target is brief 2) detection of stimuli at the location where the cue occurred is increasingly impaired when the interval between cue and target becomes longer, about 200ms onward. This inhibition of return probably evolved to prevent reflexively controlled attention from settling on unimportant stimuli for more than an instant.

Answer 248

A: One of the important functions of attention is to act as a filter, blocking unimportant stimuli and directing cognitive resources to only the most important events, and thereby protecting the brain from being overwhelmed by the world.

Answer 249

A: There is debate over whether the attentional bottleneck occurs at an early stage of sensory processing, where unattended information is filtered out right away, or at a later stage where the filtration imposed by the processing bottleneck occurs after substantial analysis has already occurred. Many models of attention contain both early- and late-selection mechanisms, and the debate continues over their relative importance.

Answer 250

A: Perceptual load is the immediate processing challenge presented by a stimulus. According to the perceptual load theory, when we focus on a complex stimulus that requires a lot of perceptual processing, attention exerts early selection and excludes other stimuli from the outset. But when we focus on simpler stimuli, there is enough perceptual capacity to allow for processing of other stimuli, right up to the level of semantic meaning, recognition, and awareness, and thus, late selection. In other words, attention strikes a balance between early and late selection, according to the difficulty of the task at hand.

Answer 251

A: Early-selection models propose that unattended information is filtered out right away, at the level of the initial sensory input. Late-selection models, on the other hand, suggest that the filtration imposed by the processing bottleneck occurs at a later point, filtering out stimuli only after substantial analysis has already occurred. Some important but unattended stimuli may undergo substantial unconscious processing right up to the level of semantic meaning and awareness, before suddenly capturing attention. Many models of attention contain both early- and late-selection mechanisms, and the debate continues over their relative importance.

Answer 252

A: Reflexive attention, also known as exogenously controlled attention, is the involuntary reorientation of attention toward a sudden or important event, which can capture and draw attention away from the task at hand. It is considered a bottom-up process because it is controlled by sensory inputs from lower levels of the nervous system, rather than being the result of voluntary, conscious cognitive control by the forebrain.

Answer 253

A: The effect of reflexive attention on stimulus processing can be measured using a peripheral spatial cueing task, in which a participant fixates on a point and is asked to respond as quickly as possible when the target stimulus appears. Instead of a meaningful symbol to direct attention toward a target location, a simple task-irrelevant sensory stimulus (such as a flash of light or a sound) is presented in the location to which attention is to be drawn. Reaction time measures for many such trials are averaged for each participant.

Answer 254

A shadowing task is a demanding task in which participants listen to two different streams of dialog delivered simultaneously to the left and right ears, and are asked to focus their attention on one ear or the other and to repeat aloud the material being presented to that ear. Participants can accurately report what they are hearing in the attended ear, but they can report very little that had been presented to the unattended ear. This type of task is used to study selective attention in auditory and visual modalities.

Answer 255

Inattentional blindness is a surprising failure to perceive nonattended stimuli that one would think would be impossible to miss. For example, a gorilla strolling across the screen in a visual shadowing experiment or a clear image of a gorilla inserted into a CT scan of the lungs. It can affect experts as well, with one study showing that 83% of radiologists screening for lung cancer missed the image of a gorilla inserted into a CT scan of the lungs.

Answer 256

The failure to perceive non -attended stimuli that seem so obvious as to be impossible to miss; it was lowering the lights on everything else

Answer 257

The brain can’t process all sensory information simultaneously

Answer 258

The shifting of our limited selective attentionaround the environment to highlight stimuli forenhanced processing

Answer 259

excessive amount of sensory information bombards the brain simultaneously. --> no selective attention no focus/efficiency

Answer 260

process in which the personselectively attends to a specific stimulus overothers by moving the eyes to point in thedirection of the stimulus.

Answer 261

process that involvesshifting mental attention without moving theeyes.

Answer 262

Active process

Answer 263

Study 1: investigate detection ability Study 1: attention increases our visual sensitivity, making things easier to detect

Answer 264

Study 2: attention speeds reaction times

Answer 265

endogenousattention: attention is deliberately directedby the brain to some object or place to servea behavioral goal.

Answer 266

exogenousattention: the stimulus attracts our attentionwithout any cognitive input. Depends oncertain visual features (e.g., color, movement,novelty,…)

Answer 267

Activated area shifts as the subject changes the area of attention orientation, despite the fact that the stimulus is always the same. Pattern of brain activity changes retinotopically.

Answer 268

* Task: Frame 1 = Frame 2? * Experience of selective attention (shape, colour, speed)and divided attention * Increased activity in different brain areas when attention was directed to speed (green), colour (blue) or shape (orange).

Answer 269

Visual attention involves activation of the visual cortex and association areas related to the visual system (temporal and parietal lobe). * The activation of specific areas varies with the characteristics to look for. * Attention enhances neuronal responses.

Answer 270

Reciprocal connections with visual cortical areas of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. * * Unilateral injuries to this area lead to increased time responses to stimuli on the contralateral side*

Answer 271

* Area located in the premotor cortex. * Responsible for saccades. * Direct connections with areas V2, V3, V4 andMT and parietal cortex + superior colliculus

Answer 272

* Frontal cortex (lateral prefrontal cortex, PFC, and frontal eye fields, FEF) active first during top-down attention, followed by LIP. * Neurons in the LIP (lateral intraparietal area) responded first to the target during bottom-up attention, followed by the PFC and FEF.

Answer 273

dorsal frontoparietal and right tempoparietal network*

Answer 274

increases (important for working memory and attention)

Answer 275

People ignore or neglect sensory information located in the visual field opposite the damaged hemisphere. --> More common with lesions of the right hemisphere (the posterior parietal cortex (spatial relations))

Answer 276

they have difficulty directing their attention to that side. Their brains fail to allocate attentional resources to the neglected space.

Answer 277

* Affects around 5% of children * inability to sustain attention (inattention): difficulty in staying on a task, staying organized, sustaining focus * impulsiveness: acting without thinking or have difficulty with self-control, a desire for immediate rewards * hyperactivity: moving constantly, including in situations when it is not appropriate

Answer 278

* Delayed cortical development (especiallyin prefrontal regions) in children andadolescentes

Answer 279

1. Cortical thickness (frontal and parietal lobes) is reduced in adults; lower grey matter density; white matter abnormalities* * 2. Reduced total brain volume and/or some brain structures (e.g. amygdala and basal ganglia are smaller) 3. Involvement of dopamine as well: Levels of available dopamine transporter molecules and receptors are typically lower in some parts of the brain.

Answer 280

* The most common treatment for ADHD is methylphenidate (Ritalin) – inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine

Answer 281

C| Skeletal musculature

Answer 282

Non-associative Learning 1. Habituation 2. Sensitization Associative Learning 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant conditioning Observational Learning *Ex: Bandura’s findings in the Bobo doll experiments

Answer 283

When one cell consistently activates another, the connection between them is strengthened. If it consistently fails to do so, the connection between them is unchanged or weakened*

Answer 284

provides a site for the neuralbasis of learning, a relatively permanentchange in behavior that results fromexperience*

Answer 285

decreased Ca2+ influx andsubsequently less neurotransmitter release from the presynapticaxon terminal

Answer 286

o increased Ca2+ influx and subsequently moreneurotransmitter release from the presynaptic axon terminal.

Answer 287

more synapses or less

Answer 288

A long-lasting increase in synaptic effectiveness after high-frequency stimulation

Answer 289

storage of information for a limited time

Answer 290

storage of of information, that lasts in time – we can recall for days, months, or years after was originally stored

Answer 291

limited in capacity and require rehearsal – information held “in mind” – e.g. when someone tells you his or her phone number, you can retain it for a limited period of time by repeating it

Answer 292

* Severe anterograde amnesia for declarative memory (impairment of long-term memory) * Partial retrograde amnesia (loss of episodic/declarative memories) * Better implicit than explicit memory (nearly intact procedural memory) * Normal working memory

Answer 293

the medial temporal cortex and hippocampus

Answer 294

The medial temporal cortex and hippocampus

Answer 295

rats with hippocampal lesions do not learn

Answer 296

respond selectively only when a mouse is in a certain location in its environment º*

Answer 297

In this case, an electrode isnext to a cell in the hippocampus that does notrespond when the rat is in the smaller upper box(left). In the first 10 minutes after the partition isremoved, the cell also does not respond (center).But after another 10 minutes, a place field developsin the new larger box (right).

Answer 298

a series of locations arranged in a hexagonal grid

Answer 299

grid cells in the entorhinal cortex

Answer 300

Color coding indicates the area in the box where one place cell in the hippocampus responds: red, large response; yellow, moderate response; blue, no response. This cell has a place field in the smaller upper box; when the partition is removed, it stays in the same location

Answer 301

Glia (etym. Glue of neurons old) outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas (cerebellum)

Answer 302

Misfolds and becomes sticky → clumbs to form oligemers → plaquesTrigger the release of cytokines because they’re observed by microglia → neural damage + synapse removal (phagocytosis)

Answer 303

Weaken synaptic communication → might affect memory

Answer 304

Tau (components of tangles) usually stablising the cytoskeletal transport → modified → abnormal shape + disconnected from the axon and moves towards the cell body → can spread to healthy neurons spreading tau’s malformation and neurodegeneration

Answer 305

excessive amounts of Amyloid beta in the cytoplasm of cells, not the external amyloid beta plaques → cytokines activated

Answer 306

21 chromosomes because people with down syndrome also have amyloid beta;

Answer 307

After being boiled, steel still has hints of a-beta that can reproduce; even small scale

Answer 308

Extracellular a-beta accumulation triggers all pathological processes that culminate in AD → drugs targeting the secretase enzymes are not safe or effective

Answer 309

Microtubule protein that causes neurodegeneration via breaking down axons and synaptic communication → effective treatments are challenging because of the complex AD pathology

Answer 310

Microglia + astrocytes → cytokines: using biomakerker treatments are complicated because they could interfere with the normal immune response

Answer 311

Neuronal damage as a result of choline loss which uses acetylcholine → ACh esterase as symptomatic treatment but oxidative stress elevating components cannot be chemically bound to ACh-es

Answer 312

Gut microbiome + Immune systemintestinal mucosal lymphoid tissue 70% - 80% of all immune cells in the body + first defence mechanismsCould also directly induce cytokine reaction, via GABA or via enteroendocrine cells that affect the brain through neuroimmune pathwaysCan affect neurotransmitter production and release (vagus nerve)

Answer 313

= pick’s disease → genetic mutation that only causes NFTs and results in degeneration of the frontal and temporal cortex → emotional changes and loss of executive functions (damaged prefrontal cortex), language disturbance (temporal lobe)

Answer 314

Amyloid plaques extracellular beta-amyloid + degenerating axons and dendrites activated microglia and reactive astrocytes, --> neuroinflammatory response produces cytokines destroy the degenerating axons and dendrites = only a core of beta-amyloid + neurofibrillary tangles consist of dying neurons that contain intracellular accumulations of twisted filaments of hyperphospholated tau protein --> leaves a trail of deformed and useless axons*

Answer 315

a gene encodes the production of the ~-amyloid precursor protein (APP), a chain of approx imately 700 amino acids. APP i then cut apmt in two places by enzymes known as secretases to produce AP. TI, e first, P-secretase, cuts the ''tail" off of an APP molecule. The second, y-secretase (gamma-secretase), cuts the "head" off. The result is a molec ule of AP that contains either 40 or 42 amino acids. The location of the second cut of the APP molecule by y-secretase determines which form is produced. In healthy brains, 90-95 percent of the Al3 molecules are of the short form; the other 5-10 percent are of the long form. In patients with Alzheimer's disease the proportion of long Al3

Answer 316

the hippocampus entorhinal cortex neocortex (especially the association cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes)nucleus basalis locus coeruleus raphe nuclei

Answer 317

10 percent of the population above the age of 6550 percent of people older than 85.

Answer 318

→ earlier framed in the context of parkinson’s now with dementia20% dementia diagnoses

Answer 319

Cholineesterase inhibitorsImmunotherapies (lecanemab, aducanumab via IV): a-beta in early stage AD slowed rate of cognitive decline vs. reduced a-beta plaques (amyloid-related imaging abnormalities = ARIA)*

Answer 320

N--methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist → later stage regulates glutamate

Answer 321

nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, insomnia, muscle cramps, fatigue, and weight loss., muscle weakness, dizziness

Answer 322

ARIA, , headache, dizziness, falls, diarrhea, and confusion, cough, nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, body aches, fatigue, high blood pressure, low blood pressure, and low oxygen.

Answer 323

dizziness, headache, diarrhea, constipation, and confusion

Answer 324

headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, anorexia, and ecchymosis (small bruising from leaking blood vessels)

Answer 325

Sleep aids, anti-anxiety, anticonvulsants, antipsychoti

Answer 326

Increased beta-secretase

Answer 327

1 to 2 percent of people over age 65 most prevalent movement disorder

Answer 328

Increasing loss of dopamine-releasing axons from the substantia nigra to the striatum → striatum decreases inhibition of globus pallidus → globus pallidus increases inhibition to the thalamus→ Damage in substantia nigra

Answer 329

28 genes, toxin exposure, heroin knock-off containing MPTP → MPP+ which accumulates and destroys dopaminergic neurons by disturbing the pathway → mimicking symptoms, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides

Answer 330

* Muscle tremors * Rigidity * Slow movements * Loss of spontaneous movement (akinesia) * Disturbances of posture * Depression * Dementia * Sleep problems * Difficulty in smelling * Lack of motivation and pleasure * Cognitive deficits (attention, memory, language)

Answer 331

50s and 60s but symptoms years before

Answer 332

Imparirment of dopaminergic transmission → more glutamatergic transmission → unbalanced striata (controls output of the basal ganglia) → overactive GABA output

Answer 333

cytoplasmic aggregates that accumulate and contain misfolded and ggregated alpha synuclein proteins

Answer 334

NMDA antagonist if Parkinsons-’s conceptualised as a glutamate hyperactivity disorder?

Answer 335

6-OHDA → nigral DA neurons think it’s DA → selective destroction of monoaminergic cells → ipsilateral symptomsMPTPSpontaneous genetic mutation → weaver rat DA degeneration over month

Answer 336

Impanting a part of a brain tissueIntracerebral gradting has been shown to be effective for cell replacement → DA release in the sriatum

Answer 337

L-dopa (pre-dopamine) crosses the blood-brain-barrier → increases dopamine release in axons, also deteriorated ones, but not other depleted neurotransmitters; nausea, restlessness, sleep problems, low blood pressure, repetitive movements, and sometimes hallucinations and delusions

Answer 338

* Brain tissue transplant? Tough * Stem cells? Also complicated * Neurotrophins induce via surgery? * Inserting electrodes to stimulate the brain: helps interrupt irregular firing * Other dopaminergic drugs that haven’t been successful

Answer 339

L-dopa increases dopamine activity in spurts and in all neurons, not steadily and not just in those that need help. It does not stop the loss of neurons.

Answer 340

Results improved somewhat after physicians began giving drugs to suppress the immune response.

Answer 341

Capillary walls are weakenedTreatment molecules cannot pass

Answer 342

the striatum * Parkinson's patients (degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra that project to the striatum) → Difficulty in learning habits * Patients with Huntington's disease(degeneration of several areas but in particular the striatum) → Difficulty in learning tasks in which a motor response is associated with a stimulus.

Answer 343

* Severe degeneration of the hippocampus, entorhinalcortex, neocortex (especially the association cortex ofthe frontal and temporal lobes), nucleus basalis, locuscoeruleus, and raphe nuclei*

Answer 344

dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra- because of Lewy bodies (deposits of alpha-synuclein protein)

Answer 345

Carbidopa prevents levodopa from being broken down before it reaches the brain

Answer 346

* Dopamine agonists * MAO inhibitors * COMT inhibitors * Anticholinergics * deep brain stimulation * Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) vs ventral mesencephalon tissue as a cell source for transplantation in Parkinson´s disease

Answer 347

* Short-term memory loss * Reading problems * Pooer object recognition * Pooer direction sense * Poor judgment * Impulsivity * Short attention * Visual problems

Answer 348

1. Injecting animals with a known genetic mutation linked to the disease → not possible 2. Altering the expression of proteins hypothesised to lead to disease pathogenesis → lack of human evidence Exposure to validated environmental risk factors → not as straightforward 3. how penetrant a given genetic variant is in producing a disorder/ how clearly linked; lack of human evidence for common genetic variants being irrefutably linked to mental health conditions*

Answer 349

tendency of a drug to bind to a receptor

Answer 350

drug's tendency to activate the receptor

Answer 351

nucleus accumbens

Answer 352

insistent search for something

Answer 353

decreased effect of a drug after repeated use

Answer 354

effect of drug cessation

Answer 355

drug that antagonizes the effects of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase by binding to its copper ion

Answer 356

drug similar to heroin and morphine that is taken orally

Answer 357

seasonal affective disorderdepression that recurs during a particular season, such as winter

Answer 358

condition characterized by restless activity, excitement, laughter, self-confidence, rambling speech, and loss of inhibitions*

Answer 359

element often used as therapy for bipolar disorder

Answer 360

positive symptom

Answer 361

absence of behavior ordinarily seen in normal people (e.g., lack of emotional expression)

Answer 362

similarity, such as having the same disorder as someone else*

Answer 363

one that rules out other conditions with similar symptoms

Answer 364

gene that controls production of dendritic spines and generation of new neurons in the hippocampus

Answer 365

phenothiazinechemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Answer 366

idea that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas

Answer 367

tardive dyskinesia

Answer 368

drug that alleviates schizophrenia with less likelihood of movement problems

Answer 369

phencyclidine (PCP)

Answer 370

At least two symptoms, being oneof them: delusions, hallucinations, ordisorganized speech. Ongoing for 6 months(at least 1 month of delusions/hallucinations)

Answer 371

ventricles are enlarged

Answer 372

Environmental risk factors: * Living in cities vs. rural areas * Childhood trauma * Autoimmune diseases * Cannabis use

Answer 373

prenatal or neonatal influences produce abnormalities in the developing brain * Prenatal or childhood infection with the parasite toxoplasma gondii * Poor nutrition or stress exposure of the mother;season-of-birth effect (winter and early spring)

Answer 374

pet scan* * * Enlarged ventricles * Reduced white matter * Abnormalities in subcortical areas * Reduced grey matter specially in hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus * Decreases in brain volume(about 5%) * Abnormalities visible in blood vessels of the retina * Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex anatomically affected

Answer 375

Comparison of three-dimensionalmaps derived from MRI scans revealsthat, compared with healthy teenagersaged 13 to 18 (left), patients withchildhood-onset schizophrenia (right)have widespread loss of gray matteracross the cerebral hemispheres*

Answer 376

*Phenothiazines (e.g., chlorpromazine) * Butyrophenones (e.g., haloperidol - tradename Haldol) * These drugs block dopamine type D2synapses

Answer 377

Mesolimbic pathway| increased DA relese in NAc

Answer 378

Mesocortical| decresed DA release in prefrontal cortex leads to negative cognitive sym

Answer 379

schizophrenia results from deficient activity atglutamate synapses in PFC* *

Answer 380

* At least five symptoms, being at least oneof them a fundamental one, nearly everyday during a 2-week period. Thesymptoms are clearly different from theindividual´s previous general functioning.

Answer 381

Moderate depression that persists for morethan 2 years (American PsychiatricAssociation, 2013), with at least two of thefollowing symptoms: difficulty with decisionmaking and concentration, feelings ofhopelessness, low appetite or overeating,fatigue, low self-esteem, problems with sleep

Answer 382

results from a deficit of one of theseNT: serotonin and noradrenaline (Monoaminehypothesis)

Answer 383

elevatedlevels of circulating cortisol --> ; failure of negativefeedback mechanisms* of glucocorticoidsalter the serotonin,norepinephrine, and dopaminesignaling systems

Answer 384

gray matter loss e anterior insula,prefrontal córtex (ventrolateral,ventromedial, dorsomedia), andsubgenual cingulate cortex.

Answer 385

Cytokines pass the blood brain barrier andstimulate the release of CRH and interactwith noradrenaline, dopamine andserotonin signaling pathways due to infection which influences the BDNF

Answer 386

A bipolar brain

PL1030: Biological Psychology Flashcards

You can email destinee.mbo@forward-college.eu with any questions/suggestions about the flashcards in this deck. (494 cards)