Plato And Aristotle

Question 1

Who was Heraclitus?

Answer 1

Heraclitus was an ancient Greek Philosopher who thought that the world we experience is in a state of constant change which he called ‘flux’.

Question 2

What did Plato think about gaining knowledge in response to Heraclitus’ challenge?

Answer 2

Plato thought that true eternal unchanging knowledge cannot be gained empirically, and we must look to a priori reason alone.

Question 3

How did Aristotle respond to Heraclitus’ challenge?

Answer 3

Aristotle believed that we can understand the causal mechanism responsible for change and gain true knowledge from experience.

Question 4

What is Plato’s theory of forms?

Answer 4

Plato’s theory of forms states that true knowledge can only be gained from the world of forms, as everything we experience in the world of appearances is a ‘particular’.

Question 5

What is the allegory of the cave?

Answer 5

The allegory of the cave is a story by Plato illustrating how true knowledge can only be gained through a priori reasoning involving understanding of the forms.

Question 6

What was Aristotle’s criticism of Plato’s theory of forms?

Answer 6

Aristotle thought that Plato’s theory of forms lacked empirical validity and was an unnecessary hypothesis.

Question 7

What is the form of the Good according to Plato?

Answer 7

The form of the Good is illustrated by Plato as the sun in the cave analogy, responsible for all existence and allowing us to see the world of forms.

Question 8

What is the empirical method?

Answer 8

A method of gaining knowledge from experience.

Question 9

What is Plato’s theory called?

Answer 9

The four causes.

Question 10

What is the form of the good?

Answer 10

The highest form illustrated by Plato in the cave analogy.

Question 11

Who should rule according to Plato?

Answer 11

A philosopher with understanding of the form of the good, as a ‘philosopher king.’

Question 12

What is below the form of the good?

Answer 12

Higher forms like justice and beauty, which have goodness in them.

Question 13

What are lower forms?

Answer 13

Forms of phenomena that we experience, such as treeness or catness.

Question 14

What are the actual material objects below lower forms?

Answer 14

Particular trees or cats that are instantiations of the lower forms.

Question 15

What does Aristotle disagree with Plato about?

Answer 15

That the cause of immorality is ignorance of the good.

Question 16

What is the third man argument?

Answer 16

A criticism of Plato’s theory of forms, suggesting an infinite regress.

Question 17

What is Plato’s argument from recollection?

Answer 17

An argument for the existence of the world of forms and the soul.

Question 18

What is anamnesis?

Answer 18

Anamnesis is the process of re-remembering perfect forms through a posteriori sense experience.

Example: Re-remembering the concept of perfect beauty through sensory experiences.

Question 19

What did Plato conclude about the source of knowledge?

Answer 19

Plato concluded that the source of knowledge must be a priori, making him a rationalist.

Question 20

What did Plato believe about the world of forms?

Answer 20

Plato believed that there must be a world of perfect and unchanging forms, which he called the World of Forms.

Example: The world of forms contains perfect mathematical forms and forms of beauty and justice.

Question 21

What is the concept of innate knowledge according to Plato?

Answer 21

Plato believed that our knowledge of perfect concepts must be innate, gained by our soul from the World of Forms before we were born.

Example: The concept of perfect justice and beauty is innate in us.

Question 22

How did Hume suggest we can create the idea of perfection in our minds?

Answer 22

Hume suggested that we can create the idea of perfection by conceiving the negation of ‘imperfect’ to gain the concept of ‘perfect’.

Question 23

What did Aristotle propose about the causes of change in the universe?

Answer 23

Aristotle proposed that all change in the universe can be explained by four causes: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause (telos).

Example: The change of a piece of wood into a chair involves the four causes.

Question 24

What is the formal cause according to Aristotle?

Answer 24

The formal cause according to Aristotle is the essence or defining characteristic of a thing.

Example: The formal cause of a chair is its shape.

Question 25

What did Aristotle believe about the final cause of the universe?

Answer 25

Aristotle believed that the final cause of the universe must be a prime mover.

Question 26

What did Aristotle reject in terms of form?

Answer 26

Aristotle rejected the separation of form from things but not the idea of form itself. ## Footnote Example: Aristotle believed that a thing's form is its defining quality that cannot be separated from the thing.

Question 27

What is a thing's form or formal cause according to Aristotle?

Answer 27

A thing's form or formal cause is its essence; its defining quality that makes it what it is. ## Footnote This also led Aristotle to reject Plato's mind-body dualism, since the form of a human (rational thought) cannot be separated from their body.

Question 28

What did Aristotle argue about the final cause of the universe?

Answer 28

Aristotle argued that the final cause of the universe must be a prime mover.

Question 29

What did Francis Bacon criticize Aristotle for?

Answer 29

Francis Bacon criticised Aristotle, claiming that final causation (telos/purpose) has no place in empirical science but is a metaphysical issue, since purpose is a divine matter. ## Footnote Purpose is unscientific.

Question 30

What did modern science reject in terms of causation?

Answer 30

Modern science rejected formal and final causation. A deterministic universe operating by the laws of physics seems to be completely without purpose. All supposed telos of an object can be reduced to non-teleological concepts regarding the material structure of an object.

Question 31

According to McGrath, what are the limits of science?

Answer 31

Modern Christian philosophers like Swinburne & Polkinghorne have argued that science is limited and cannot answer all questions. It can tell us the what but not the why. ## Footnote McGrath points out that science cannot answer questions about purpose and therefore cannot be used to disregard the existence of purpose.

Question 32

What was Sartre's critique of telos?

Answer 32

Sartre argued that there was no objective telos/purpose because 'existence precedes essence', meaning humans exist before they have a defined purpose and so have to subjectively define their purpose for themselves.

Question 33

What was Sartre's psychological argument against objective purpose?

Answer 33

Sartre argued that people cling to fabricated notions of objective purpose like religion or Aristotle's 'final cause/telos' because they are afraid of not having a purpose. ## Footnote Sartre's argument was a psychological one, that people cling to fabricated notions of objective purpose like religion or Aristotle's 'final cause/telos' because they are afraid of not having a purpose.

Question 34

What is the essence of a human according to Aristotle?

Answer 34

Aristotle claimed the defining feature of a human being is the ability to reason. Aristotle claimed that the soul was the formal cause of the body. ## Footnote Form means essence, which is a thing's defining characteristic.

Question 35

Who was called the father of empiricism for establishing the modern scientific method?

Answer 35

F. Bacon was called the father of empiricism for establishing the modern scientific method.

Question 36

What does form mean according to Aristotle?

Answer 36

Form means essence, which is a thing’s defining characteristic.

Question 37

What did Aristotle claim is the defining feature of a human being?

Answer 37

Aristotle claimed the defining feature of a human being is the ability to reason.

Question 38

What did Aristotle claim the soul was the formal cause of?

Answer 38

Aristotle claimed that the soul was the formal cause of the body.

Question 39

What did Bacon think about formal causation?

Answer 39

F. Bacon thought that formal causation is a metaphysical matter that was beyond empirical study.

Question 40

What did modern science go further than Bacon in rejecting?

Answer 40

Modern science goes much further than Bacon in its rejection of formal causation.

Question 41

What does modern science argue about the existence of formal causation?

Answer 41

Modern science argues that we have no reason to think formal causation exists at all.

Question 42

What does modern science argue the idea of 'form' reduces to?

Answer 42

Modern science argues that the idea of 'form' actually reduces to material and efficient causation.

Question 43

What would most neuroscientists claim rationality reduces to?

Answer 43

Most neuroscientists would claim that rationality reduces to material brain structure and its physical processes.

Question 44

What does modern science currently not have an explanation for?

Answer 44

Science cannot currently explain how consciousness or reason reduces to material brain processes.

Question 45

What is Aristotle's theory of the Prime Mover based on?

Answer 45

Aristotle's theory of the Prime Mover resulted from applying the four causes to the universe.

Question 46

What did Aristotle observe about objects that are moved?

Answer 46

Aristotle observed that if an object is moved, it keeps moving and then stops.

Question 47

What did Aristotle infer about the motion of the stars?

Answer 47

Aristotle inferred that there must be something unmoved moving the stars.

Question 48

What must the prime mover be according to Aristotle?

Answer 48

The prime mover must be unmoved and therefore cannot change.

Question 49

What is the prime mover responsible for according to Aristotle?

Answer 49

The Prime Mover is responsible for the everlasting motion and change of the universe.

Question 50

How does the prime mover sustain the change in the world according to Aristotle?

Answer 50

The way the prime mover sustains the change in the world must therefore be due to some sort of attraction of the things in this world to it.

Question 51

What did Newton challenge about Aristotle's belief on motion?

Answer 51

Newton challenged Aristotle’s belief that an object which is moved will simply stop moving by itself.

Question 52

What concept did Aristotle propose to explain the constant motion in the universe?

Answer 52

Prime mover ## Footnote Aristotle believed that the prime mover was responsible for sustaining the pattern of change in the universe.

Question 53

What did Newton challenge in Aristotle's beliefs?

Answer 53

Newton challenged the belief that an object will simply stop moving by itself when moved. ## Footnote Newton proposed that an object will continue to move until met by an equal and opposite reaction.

Question 54

Where are Newton's ideas most clearly illustrated?

Answer 54

In a vacuum - space ## Footnote Newton's ideas about motion are best illustrated in outer space where there is less gravity and friction.

Question 55

What did Aristotle's a posteriori method involve?

Answer 55

Empirical observation ## Footnote Aristotle's method relied on empirical observation to understand reality and led to modern scientific methods.

Question 56

What is Plato's One Over Many argument about?

Answer 56

The argument for the world of forms ## Footnote Plato's argument suggests that there must be perfect abstract qualities like 'treeness' for us to categorize things.

Question 57

How did Aristotle respond to Plato's One Over Many argument?

Answer 57

Aristotle objected to the separation of form from things, believing a thing's form is its essence. ## Footnote Aristotle believed that a thing's form cannot be separated from the thing itself.

Question 58

What was Wittgenstein's criticism of the One Over Many argument?

Answer 58

Wittgenstein argued against the idea of precisely definable forms or abstract ideals of categories. ## Footnote He believed that categories are determined by social convention and are not metaphysical entities.

Question 59

How do humans divide the world linguistically and conceptually?

Answer 59

In a disorganised haphazard way when it is useful for us within our social context, not according to objective categories of reality. ## Footnote Example: The boundary between tree and bush are for example, in some species.

Question 60

What determines the categories created by humans?

Answer 60

Social convention, not objective reality. ## Footnote Categories are not metaphysical, they are conceptual schemes mapped onto a human experience of the world for the purpose of performing a specific function or use.

Question 61

What are the boundaries of these categories?

Answer 61

Indeterminate and subject to revision. ## Footnote What someone decides to call a tree might depend on the use for which the category ‘tree’ has in their social environment.

Question 62

Is there a perfect form of 'treeness'?

Answer 62

No. ## Footnote There is no perfect form of ‘treeness’.