PMBOK vocab Flashcards
(313 cards)
1
Q
Outcome.
A
An end result or consequence of a process or project. Outcomes can include
outputs and artifacts, but have a broader intent by focusing on the benefits and value that the project was undertaken to deliver.
2
Q
Portfolio.
A
Projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations managed as a group
to achieve strategic objectives.
3
Q
Product.
A
An artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item.
4
Q
Program.
A
Related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities that are managed
in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually.
5
Q
Project.
A
A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. The temporary nature of projects indicates a beginning and an end to the project work or
a phase of the project work. Projects can stand alone or be part of a program or portfolio.
6
Q
Project management.
A
The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project
requirements. Project management refers to guiding the
project work to deliver the intended outcomes. Project teams can achieve the outcomes using a broad range of approaches (e.g., predictive, hybrid, and adaptive).
7
Q
Project manager.
A
The person assigned by the performing organization to lead the project
team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives. Project managers perform
a variety of functions, such as facilitating the project team work to achieve the outcomes
and managing the processes to deliver intended outcomes.
8
Q
Project team.
A
A set of individuals performing the work of the project to achieve its objectives.
9
Q
System for value delivery.
A
A collection of strategic business activities aimed at building, sustaining, and/or advancing an organization.
Portfolios, programs, projects, products,
and operations can all be part of an organization’s system for value delivery.
10
Q
Value.
A
The worth, importance, or usefulness of something. Different stakeholders perceive
value in different ways. Customers can define value as the ability to use specific features or functions of a product. Organizations can focus on business value as determined with financial metrics, such as the benefits less the cost of achieving those benefits. Societal
value can include the contribution to groups of people, communities, or the environment.
11
Q
Funding limit reconciliation
A
Funding limit reconciliation is done when there are limited funds to spend on the project and work may need to be rescheduled.
12
Q
Parametric estimates
A
Parametric estimates are a type of mathematical estimates done to estimate the cost of each activity.
13
Q
Analogous estimates
A
Analogous estimates are based on historical information to estimate the cost of each activity.
14
Q
affinity diagram
A
An affinity diagram is used to group large numbers of ideas to be analyzed.
15
Q
prototype
A
A prototype is a functional model of a product given to customers for their feedback.
16
Q
Decomposition
A
Decomposition is a tool used to break work down into more detailed activities.
17
Q
requirements documentation
A
The requirements documentation is the output of the process of collect requirements, not a tool.
18
Q
Manage quality
A
Manage quality is an executing process where you will improve processes by conducting audits and process analysis.
19
Q
flowchart
A
A flowchart is used to visually follow the steps in a process or multiple processes.
20
Q
control chart
A
A control chart will show if a process is in “control” by illustrating the rule of 7
21
Q
histogram
A
A histogram is a bar chart that usually shows frequency of something.
22
Q
team performance assessments
A
Performance assessments are the output of The process of develop team
23
Q
product backlog
A
The product backlog will contain all the work needed to complete the project
24
Q
iteration backlog
A
iteration backlog will contain the work that will get done in the next iteration.
25
executing process group
the project manager will assess the team’s performance and try to improve it through the process of developing and managing the team.
26
Work performance data
an output of the integration process of direct and manage project work.
27
A fixed price contract
will have the lowest risk for the project, since the costs of the labor and material are known up front.
28
Process assets
Process assets may include tools, methodologies, approaches, templates,
frameworks, patterns, or PMO resources.
29
Governance documentation.
This documentation includes policies and processes.
30
Data assets
Data assets may include databases, document libraries, metrics, data, and
artifacts from previous projects.
31
Knowledge assets.
Knowledge assets may include tacit knowledge among project team members, subject matter experts, and other employees.
32
Security and safety.
Security and safety measures may include procedures and practices for facility access, data protection, levels of confidentiality, and proprietary secrets.
33
Organizational culture, structure, and governance.
These aspects of an organization include the vision, mission, values, beliefs, cultural norms, leadership style, hierarchy and authority relationships, organizational style, ethics, and code of conduct.
34
Geographic distribution of facilities and resources.
These resources include work
locations, virtual project teams, and shared systems.
35
Infrastructure.
Infrastructure consists of existing facilities, equipment, organizational and
telecommunications channels, information technology hardware, availability, and capacity.
36
Information technology software.
Examples include scheduling software, configuration
management systems, web interfaces to online
37
Resource availability.
Examples include contracting and purchasing constraints, approved providers and subcontractors, and collaboration agreements. Availability related to both
people and materials includes contracting and purchasing constraints, approved providers
and subcontractors, and time lines.
38
Employee capability.
Examples include general and specialized expertise, skills,
competencies, techniques, and knowledge.
39
positive risks
opportunity
40
negative risks
threats
41
project performance domains
1. stakeholders
2. team
3. Development Approach and life cycle
4. planning
5. project work
6. delivery
7. measurement
8. uncertainty
42
Stakeholder Analysis.
A method of systematically gathering and analyzing quantitative and
qualitative information to determine whose interests should be taken into account throughout
the project.
43
Stakeholder engagement cycle
1. identify
2. understand
3. analyze
4. prioritize
5. engage
6. monitor
44
push communication
you sending stuff out
45
pull communication
stakeholder asks for information
46
Project Phase.
A collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables.
47
Project Life Cycle.
The series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion.
48
Cadence.
A rhythm of activities conducted throughout the project.
49
predictive approach
waterfall management - when the project and product
requirements can be defined, collected, and analyzed at the start of the project.
50
iterative vs incremental development
iterative tries different ideas to clarify the scope, approach, and requirements. Incremental progressively develops the features and functions
51
Predictive Life cycle and phases with definitions
1. feasibility - is there capacity
2. design - planning and analysis to the design of the deliverables
3. build - constructions of the deliverable with integrated quality assurance activities are conducted
4. test - final quality review before acceptance of the customer
5. deploy - project deliverable are put into use
5. close 0 the project is closed, project knowledge and artifacts are archived, project team members are released, contracts are closed
52
Accuracy.
Within the quality management system, accuracy is an assessment of correctness.
53
Precision.
Within the quality management system, precision is an assessment of exactness.
54
Crashing.
A method used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost
by adding resources. Crashing can include adding people to activities, working overtime, or
paying to expedite deliveries.
55
Fast Tracking.
A schedule compression method in which activities or phases normally done in sequence are performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration. For example, rather than waiting for an
activity to finish before the next one starts (a finish-to-start relationship), change the relationship to have the end of the successor activity finish a determined amount of time after the end of the predecessor (a finish-to-finish relationship). The network logic would show a lag between the finish of the predecessor and the finish of the successor activities.
56
Budget.
The approved estimate for the project or any work breakdown structure (WBS) component or any schedule activity.
57
Deterministic estimates,
also known as point estimates, present a single number or amount, such as 36 months.
58
Probabilistic estimates
include a range of estimates along with the associated probabilities within the range. They can be developed manually by (a) developing a weighted average based on multiple likely outcomes, or (b) running a simulation to develop a probability analysis of a particular outcome, usually in terms of cost or schedule.
59
Absolute estimates
are specific information and use
actual numbers. An absolute estimate for effort might be shown as 120 hours of work. One person working full time could accomplish the work in 15 workdays, assuming 8 hours of
productivity per workday.
60
relative estimates
are shown in comparison to other estimates. Relative estimates only have meaning within a given context.
61
Flow-based estimates
are developed by determining the cycle time and throughput. Cycle time is the total elapsed time it takes one unit to get through a process. Throughput is the number of items that can complete a process in a given amount of time. These two numbers can provide an estimate to complete a specified quantity of work.
62
steps of planning a schedule
1. decompose the project scope into specific activities
2. sequence related activities
3. Estimate the effort, duration, people, and physical resources required to complete the activity
4. allocate people and resources to the activity based on availability
5. adjust the sequence, estimates, and resources until an agreed-upon schedule is achieved
63
lead
is where the work of a successor activity is accelerated, such as starting a successor activity before the predecessor has finished.
64
lag
is a delay of a successor activity.
65
Mandatory dependency.
A relationship that is contractually required or inherent in the nature of the work. This type of dependency usually cannot be modified.
66
Discretionary dependency.
A relationship that is based on best practices or project
preferences. This type of dependency may be modifiable.
67
External dependency.
A relationship between project activities and non-project activities. This type of dependency usually cannot be modified.
68
Internal dependency
A relationship between one or more project activities. This type
of dependency may be modifiable.
69
timebox
The work in each timebox is based on a prioritized
backlog. The project team determines the amount of work they can do in each timebox, estimates the work, and self-manages to accomplish the work. At the end of the timebox, the project team demonstrates the work completed. At that point, the backlog and estimates of work available to be done may be updated or reprioritized for the next timebox.
70
project budget components
Work Cost Estimates turns into the cost Baseline. The project budget is the cost Baseline plus contingency reserves. The total budget is the project budget plus management reserves
71
Procurement
Procurements can happen at any time during a project. However, up-front planning helps to set expectations that ensure the procurement process is performed smoothly. Once the high- level scope is known, project teams conduct a make-or-buy analysis. This includes identifying those deliverables and services that will be developed in-house, and those that will be purchased
from external sources. This information impacts the project team and the schedule. Contracting professionals need advance information on the type of goods needed, when they will be needed, and any technical specifications required for the procured goods or services.
72
Bid Documents.
All documents used to solicit information, quotations, or proposals from prospective sellers.
73
Bidder Conference.
The meetings with prospective sellers prior to the preparation of a bid or proposal to ensure all prospective vendors have a clear and common understanding of the
procurement. Also known as contractor conferences, vendor conferences, or pre-bid
conferences.
74
Explicit Knowledge.
Knowledge that can be codified using symbols such as words, numbers, and pictures.
75
Tacit Knowledge.
Personal knowledge that can be difficult to articulate and share such as beliefs, experience, and insights.
76
Lean production methods.
Lean production uses techniques such as value stream mapping to measure the ratio of value-adding activities and non-value-adding activities.
The metrics calculated form a basis and measurement system for identifying and removing
waste from production systems.
77
Retrospectives or lessons learned.
These meetings provide an opportunity for the
project team to review the way in which it works and to suggest changes to improve
process and efficiency.
78
DOD
Definition of Done (DoD). A checklist of all the criteria required to be met so that a deliverable
can be considered ready for customer use.
79
COQ
Cost of Quality (COQ). All costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing
nonconformance to requirements, appraisal of the product or service for conformance to
requirements, and failure to meet requirements.
80
Requirements of elicitation
1. Clear
2. Concise
3. Verifiable
4. Consistent
5. Complete
6. Traceable
81
WBS
A work breakdown structure is a hierarchical decomposition of the total
scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish the project objectives
and create the required deliverables. Each level down in the hierarchy represents a greater
level of detail of the deliverable and work required to produce it.
82
Acceptance or completion criteria.
The criteria required to be met before the customer
accepts the deliverable or before the project is considered complete are often
documented in a scope statement.
83
Technical performance measures.
the technical specifications for a product may be
documented in a separate specifications document, or they may be documented as
an extension to the WBS. This extension, known as a WBS dictionary, elaborates the
information for each deliverable (work package) in the WBS.
84
WBS Dictionary
This extension, known as a WBS dictionary, elaborates the
information for each deliverable (work package) in the WBS.
85
COQ
The cost of quality methodology is used to find the appropriate balance for investing
in quality prevention and appraisal to avoid defect or product failures. This model identifies four
categories of costs associated with quality: prevention, appraisal, internal failure, and external failure.
86
COQ: prevention
Prevention costs are incurred to keep defects and failures out of a
product. Prevention costs avoid quality problems. They are associated with the design,
implementation, and maintenance of the quality management system. They are planned
and incurred before actual operation. Examples include:
▹ Product or service requirements, such as the establishment of specifications for incoming
materials, processes, finished products, and services;
▹ Quality planning, such as the creation of plans for quality, reliability, operations,
production, and inspection;
▹ Quality assurance, such as the creation and maintenance of the quality system; and
▹ Training, such as the development, preparation, and maintenance of programs.
87
COQ: Appraisal
Appraisal. Appraisal costs are incurred to determine the degree of conformance to
quality requirements. Appraisal costs are associated with measuring and monitoring
activities related to quality. These costs may be associated with evaluation of purchased
materials, processes, products, and services to ensure that they conform to specifications.
They could include:
▹ Verification, such as checking incoming material, process setup, and products against
agreed specifications;
▹ Quality audits, such as confirmation that the quality system is functioning correctly; and
▹ Supplier rating, such as assessment and approval of suppliers of products and services.
88
COQ: Internal Failure
Internal Failure. Internal failure costs are associated with finding and correcting defects
before the customer receives the product. These costs are incurred when the results
of work fail to reach design quality standards. Examples include:
▹ Waste, such as performance of unnecessary work or holding enough stock to account
for errors, poor organization, or communication;
▹ Scrap, such as defective product or material that cannot be repaired, used, or sold;
▹ Rework or rectification, such as correction of defective material or errors; and
▹ Failure analysis, such as activities required to establish the causes of internal product
or service failure.
89
COQ: External Failure
External Failure. External failure costs are associated with defects found after the
customer has the product and with remediation. Note that to consider these failures
holistically requires thinking about the project's product while it is in operation after
months or years, not just at the handover date. External failure costs occur when products
or services that fail to reach design quality standards are not detected until after they have
reached the customer. Examples include:
▹ Repairs and servicing, for both returned products and those that are deployed;
▹ Warranty claims, such as failed products that are replaced or services that are
reperformed under a guarantee;
▹ Complaints, for all work and costs associated with handling and servicing customers’
complaints;
▹ Returns, for handling and investigation of rejected or recalled products, including
transport costs; and
▹ Reputation, where reputation and public perception can be damaged depending on the
type and severity of defects.
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Metric.
Measurement Performance Domain: A description of a project or product attribute and how to measure it.
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Baseline.
Measurement Performance Domain: The approved version of a work product used as a basis for comparison to actual results.
92
Dashboard.
Measurement Performance Domain: A set of charts and graphs showing progress or performance against important
measures of the project.
93
Measurement Performance Domain
evaluates the degree to which the work done in the Delivery Performance Domain is meeting the metrics identified in the Planning Performance Domain. For example, performance can be measured and evaluated using baselines identified in the Planning Performance Domain. Having timely and accurate information about project work and performance allows the project team to learn and determine the appropriate action to take to address current or expected variances from the desired performance.
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knowledge areas
1. Scope
2. Time
3. cost
4. Quality
5. HR
6. Communication
7. Risk
8. Procurement
9. Stakeholders
10. Integration
95
KPI
Key Performance Indicators: Key performance indicators (KPIs) for projects are quantifiable measures used to evaluate the success of a project. There are two types of KPIs: leading indicators and lagging indicators.
96
leading indicators
Leading indicators predict changes or trends in the project. If the change or trend is unfavorable, the project team evaluates the root cause of the leading indicator measurement and takes actions to reverse the trend. Used in this way, leading indicators can reduce performance risk on a project by identifying potential performance variances before they cross the tolerance threshold. Leading indicators may be quantifiable, such as the size of the project or the number of items that are in progress in the backlog. Other leading indicators are more difficult to quantify, but they provide early warning signs of potential problems. The lack of a risk management process, stakeholders who are not available or engaged, or poorly defined project success criteria
97
Lagging indicators.
Lagging indicators measure project deliverables or events. They provide information after the fact. Lagging indicators reflect past performance or conditions. Lagging indicators are easier to measure than leading indicators. Examples include the number of deliverables completed, the schedule or cost variance, and the amount of resources consumed. Lagging indicators can also be used to find correlations between outcomes and environmental variables. For example, a lagging indicator that shows a schedule variance may show a correlation with project team member dissatisfaction. This correlation can assist the project team in addressing a root cause that may not have been obvious if the only measure was schedule status.
98
SMART
▶ Specific. Measurements are specific as to what to measure. Examples include the number
of defects, the defects that have been fixed, or the average time it takes to fix defects.
▶ Meaningful. Measures should be tied to the business case, baselines, or requirements.
It is not efficient to measure product attributes or project performance that do not lead to
meeting objectives or improving performance.
▶ Achievable. The target is achievable given the people, technology, and environment.
▶ Relevant. Measures should be relevant. The information provided by the measure should
provide value and allow for actionable information.
▶ Timely. Useful measurements are timely. Information that is old is not as useful as fresh
information. Forward-looking information, such as emerging trends, can help project teams
change direction and make better decisions.
99
Work in progress.
Delivery measurements▶ This measure indicates the number of work items that are being worked
on at any given time. It is used to help the project team limit the number of items in progress
to a manageable size.
100
Lead time.
Delivery measurements▶ This measure indicates the amount of elapsed time from a story or chunk
of work entering the backlog to the end of the iteration or the release. Lower lead time
indicates a more effective process and a more productive project team.
101
Cycle time.
Delivery measurements▶ Related to lead time, cycle time indicates the amount of time it takes the
project team to complete a task. Shorter times indicate a more productive project team.
A consistent time helps predict the possible rate of work in the future.
102
Queue size.
Delivery measurements▶ This measure tracks the number of items in a queue. This metric can be compared to the work in progress limit. Little’s Law states that queue size is proportional to both the rate of arrival in the queue and the rate of completion of items from the queue. One can gain insights into completion times by measuring work in progress and developing
a forecast for future work completion.
103
Batch size.
Delivery measurements▶ Batch size measures the estimated amount of work (level of effort, story points, etc.) that is expected to be completed in an iteration.
104
Process efficiency.
Delivery measurements▶ Process efficiency is a ratio used in lean systems to optimize the flow of work. This measure calculates the ratio between value-adding time and non-value-adding activities. Tasks that are waiting increase the non-value-adding time. Tasks that are in
development or in verification represent value-adding time. Higher ratios indicate a more efficient process.
105
Start and finish dates.
schedule measures ▶ Comparing the actual start dates to the planned start dates and the actual finish dates to the planned finish dates can measure the extent to which work is
accomplished as planned. Even if work is not on the longest path through the project (the
critical path), late start and finish dates indicate that the project is not performing to plan.
106
Effort and duration.
schedule measures▶ Actual effort and duration compared to planned effort and duration
indicates whether estimates for the amount of work and the time the work takes are valid.
107
SV
schedule measures▶ Schedule variance (SV). A simple schedule variance is determined by looking at
performance on the critical path. When used with earned value management, it is the
difference between the earned value and the planned value. Figure 2-24 shows an earned
value graph illustrating the schedule variance.
108
SPI
schedule measures▶ Schedule performance index (SPI). Schedule performance index is an earned value management measure that indicates how efficiently the scheduled work is being performed.
109
Feature completion rates.
schedule measures▶ Examining the rate of feature acceptance during frequent reviews can help assess progress and estimate completion dates and costs.
110
Actual cost compared to planned cost.
cost measures▶ Actual cost compared to planned cost. This cost measure compares the actual cost for labor or resources to the estimated cost. This term may be referred to as the burn rate.
111
CV
cost measures▶ Cost variance (CV). A simple cost variance is determined by comparing the actual cost of a deliverable to the estimated cost. When used with earned value management, it is
the difference between the earned value and the actual cost
112
CPI
cost measures▶ Cost performance index (CPI). An earned value management measure that indicates
how efficiently the work is being performed with regard to the budgeted cost of the work.
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EVM
earned value management
114
ETC
▶ Estimate to complete (ETC). An earned value management measure that forecasts
the expected cost to finish all the remaining project work. There are many different ways
to calculate the estimate to complete. Assuming past performance is indicative of future
performance, a common measurement is calculation of the budget at completion minus
the earned value, then dividing by the cost performance index.
115
EAC
▶ Estimate at completion (EAC). This earned value management measure forecasts the
expected total cost of completing all work (see Figure 2-26). There are many different
ways to calculate the estimate at completion. Assuming past performance is indicative of
future performance, a common measurement is the budget at completion divided by the
cost performance index.
116
VAC
▶ Variance at completion (VAC). An earned value management measure that forecasts the
amount of budget deficit or surplus. It is expressed as the difference between the budget
at completion (BAC) and the estimate at completion (EAC).
117
TCPI
▶ To-complete performance index (TCPI). An earned value management measure that
estimates the cost performance required to meet a specified management goal. TCPI is
expressed as the ratio of the cost to finish the outstanding work to the remaining budget.
118
Regression analysis.
▶ Regression analysis. An analytical method where a series of input variables are examined
in relation to their corresponding output results in order to develop a mathematical or
statistical relationship. The relationship can be used to infer future performance.
119
Throughput analysis.
▶ Throughput analysis. This analytical method assesses the number of items being
completed in a fixed time frame. Project teams that use adaptive practices use throughput
metrics such as features complete vs. features remaining, velocity, and story points to
evaluate their progress and estimate likely completion dates. Using duration estimates
and burn rates of stable project teams can help verify and update cost estimates.
120
BVC
Big Visible Charts
121
burndown chart
shows how much work needs to be compelted
122
burn up chart
show how much work has been completed
123
combined burn chart
shows how much work needs to be completed and how much work has been completed
124
Hawthorne effect.
▶ The Hawthorne effect states that the very act of measuring something
influences behavior. Therefore, take care in establishing metrics. For example, measuring
only a project team's output of deliverables can encourage the project team to focus on
creating a large volume of deliverables rather than focusing on deliverables that would
provide higher customer satisfaction.
125
Vanity metric.
▶ A vanity metric is a measure that shows data but does not provide useful information for making decisions. Measuring pageviews of a website is not as useful as measuring the number of new viewers.
126
Decoupling.
▶ Decoupling entails disconnecting parts of the system to both simplify the
system and reduce the number of connected variables. Determining how a piece of a
system works on its own reduces the overall size of the problem.
127
Simulation.
▶ There may be similar though unrelated scenarios that can be used to simulate components of a system. A project to build a new airport that includes an area with shopping and restaurants can learn about consumer buying habits by seeking out analogous information on shopping malls and entertainment
establishments.
128
Alternatives analysis.
▶ Finding and evaluating alternatives, such as looking at different ways to meet an objective, such as using a different mix of skills, resequencing work,
or outsourcing work. Alternatives analysis may include identifying the variables to be considered in evaluating options, and the relative
importance or weight of each variable.
129
Threat strategies
1. avoid
2. excalate
3. Transfer (give it to a third party)
4. Mitigate
5. Accept
130
opportunity strategies
1. exploit
2. escalate
3. share
4. enhance
5. accept
131
VDO
value delivery office
132
principles of project management
1. be a diligent, respectful and caring steward
2. recognize, evaluate, and respond to system interactions
3. navigate complexity
4. create a collaborative team environment
5. optimize risk
6. effectively engage with stakeholders
7. tailor based on context
8.embrace adaptability
9. focus on value
10. build quality into processes and deliverables
11. Demonstrate leadership behaviors
12. enable change to achieve the envisioned future state
133
Model
▶ A model is a thinking strategy to explain a process, framework, or phenomenon.
134
Method
A method is the means for achieving an outcome, output, result, or project
deliverable.
135
Artifact
An artifact can be a template, document, output, or project deliverable.
136
OSCAR model
The OSCAR coaching and mentoring model was developed by Karen Whittleworth and Andrew
Gilbert. It helps individuals adapt their coaching or leadership styles to support individuals who have an action plan for personal development. The model refers to five contributing factors:
▶ Outcome. An outcome identifies the long-term goals of an individual and the desired result from each conversation session.
▶ Situation. A situation enables conversation about the current skills, abilities, and knowledge level of the project team member; why the person is at that level; and how that level impacts the individual’s performance and peer relationships.
▶ Choices/consequences. Choice and/or consequences identify all the potential avenues for attaining the desired outcome and the consequences of each choice so an individual can choose viable avenues for reaching their long-term goals.
▶ Actions. An action commits to specific improvements by focusing on immediate and attainable targets that an individual can work toward within a specified time frame.
▶ Review. Holding regular meetings offers support and helps to ensure that individuals remain motivated and on track.
137
Theory X.
▶ The X side of the spectrum assumes individuals work for the sole purpose of
income. They are not ambitious or goal oriented. The corresponding management style to motivate these individuals is a hands-on and top-down approach. This management style is often seen in a production or labor-intensive environment, or one with many layers of management.
138
Theory Y.
▶ The Y side of the spectrum assumes that individuals are intrinsically motivated to do good work. The corresponding management style has a more personal coaching feel. The manager encourages creativity and discussion. This management style is often seen in creative and knowledge worker environments.
139
Theory Z.
▶ Abraham Maslow saw Theory Z as a transcendent dimension to work where individuals are motivated by self-realization, values, and a higher calling. The optimal management style in this situation is one that cultivates insight and meaning. William Ouchi’s version of Theory Z focuses on motivating employees by creating a job for life where the focus is on the well-being of employees and their families. This style of management seeks to promote high productivity, morale, and satisfaction.
140
ADKAR® Model
Jeff Hiatt developed the ADKAR® Model which focuses on five sequential steps that individuals undergo when adapting to change:
▶ Step 1: Awareness. This step identifies why the change is necessary.
▶ Step 2: Desire. Once people know why the change is necessary, there needs to be a desire to be part of and support the change.
▶ Step 3: Knowledge. People need to understand how to change. This includes understanding new processes and systems in addition to new roles and responsibilities. Knowledge can be imparted through training and education.
▶ Step 4: Ability. In this step, knowledge is supported with hands-on practice and access to expertise and help as needed.
▶ Step 5: Reinforcement.
Reinforcement supports the sustainment of the change. This can include rewards, recognition, feedback, and measurement.
140
Managing Change in Organizations:
A Practice Guide [3] is an iterative model that is based
on common elements across a range of change management models. The framework has five
associated elements interconnected through a series of feedback loops:
▶ Formulate change. This element focuses on building the rationale to help people
understand why change is needed and how the future state will be better.
▶ Plan change. The identification of activities helps people prepare for the transition from the current to the future state.
▶ Implement change. This iterative element focuses on demonstrating the future state capabilities, checking to ensure the capabilities are having the intended impact, and making necessary improvements or adaptations in response.
▶ Manage transition. This element considers how to address needs related to the change
that may surface once the future state is achieved.
▶ Sustain change. This element seeks to ensure that the new capabilities continue and previous processes or behaviors cease.
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Virginia Satir Change Model
Virginia Satir developed a model of how people experience and cope with change. Its purpose is to help project team members understand what they are feeling and enable them to move through change more efficiently.
▶ Late status quo. This initial stage is when everything feels familiar and can be characterized as “business as usual.” For some people, business as usual may be good because they know what to expect. For others, this status may feel a bit stale or boring.
▶ The foreign element. Something happens that shifts the status quo in this stage. This may include initiating a project that introduces change to people’s usual way of working. There is often a period of resistance and reduction in performance after the change is introduced. People may ignore the change or dismiss its relevance.
▶ Chaos. People are in unfamiliar territory. They are no longer comfortable, and performance drops to its lowest level. Feelings, actions, and behaviors are unpredictable. Some people feel anxious, others may shut down, and some individuals may feel excited. Chaos can make people very creative as they try to find ways to make sense of the situation. They try various ideas and behaviors to see which of these has a positive outcome.
▶ The transforming idea. People come to a point where they come up with an idea that helps them make sense of the situation. They begin to see how they can find a way out of the chaos and cope with the new reality. Work performance begins to increase.
▶ Practice and integration. People try to implement their new ideas or behaviors. There may be setbacks and a period of trial and error, but eventually they learn what works and what doesn’t. This leads to improved performance. Often performance is at a higher level than it was before the foreign element was introduced.
▶ New status quo. People get used to the new environment, and their performance stabilizes. Eventually, the new status quo becomes the normal way of working.
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Tuckman Ladder
Bruce Tuckman articulated the stages of team development as forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning.
▶ Forming. The project team first comes together. Members get to know each other’s name, position on the project team, skill sets, and other pertinent background information. This might occur in the kickoff meeting.
▶ Storming. Project team members jockey for position on the team. This phase is where people’s personalities, strengths, and weaknesses start
to come out. There might be some conflict or struggle as people figure out how to work together. Storming might go on for some time or pass relatively quickly.
▶ Norming. The project team starts to function as a collective body. At this point, project team members know their places on the team and how they relate to and interface with all the other members. They are starting to work together. There might be some challenges as work progresses, but these issues are resolved quickly, and the project team moves into action.
▶ Performing. The project team becomes operationally efficient. This is the mature project team stage. Project teams that have been together for a while are able to develop a synergy. By working together, project team members accomplish more and produce a high-quality product.
▶ Adjourning. The project team completes the work and disperses to work on other things. If the project team has formed good relationships, some project team members might be sad about leaving the project team.
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Transition Model
William Bridges’
Transition Model provides an understanding of what occurs to individuals psychologically when an organizational change takes place. This model differentiates between change
and transition. Change is situational and happens whether or not people transition through it. Transition is a psychological process where people gradually accept the details of the new situation
and the changes that come with it. The model identifies three stages of transition associated with change:
▶ Ending, losing, and letting go. The change is introduced in this stage. It is often associated with fear, anger, upset, uncertainty, denial, and resistance to the change.
▶ The neutral zone. The change is happening in this stage. In some instances, people may feel frustration, resentment, confusion, and anxiety about the change. Productivity may drop as people learn new ways of doing work. In other instances, people may become very creative, innovative, and passionate about trying new ways of working.
▶ The new beginning. At this point, people accept and even embrace the change. They are becoming more adept at the new skills and the new ways of working. People are often open to learning and are energized by the change.
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Drexler/Sibbet Team Performance Model
Allan Drexler and David Sibbet developed a team performance model with seven steps. Steps 1 through 4 describe the stages in creating a project team, and steps 5 through 7 cover project team sustainability and performance.
▶ Step 1: Orientation. Orientation answers the question of why. In this stage, the project team learns the purpose and mission for the project. This usually occurs at a kickoff meeting, or is documented in a business case, project charter, or lean start-up canvas.
▶ Step 2: Trust building. Trust building answers the question of who. This stage sheds light on who is on the project team and the skills and abilities each person brings. It can also include information about key stakeholders who may not be part of the project team but
can influence the project team.
▶ Step 3: Goal clarification. Goal clarification answers what. In this stage, the project team elaborates the high-level project information. This may include finding out more about stakeholder expectations, requirements, assumptions, and deliverable acceptance criteria.
▶ Step 4: Commitment. Commitment addresses the question of how. In this stage, the project team starts to define plans to achieve the goals. This can include milestone schedules, release plans, high-level budgets, resource needs, and so forth.
▶ Step 5: Implementation. High-level plans are decomposed into greater levels of detail, such as a detailed schedule or backlog. The project team starts working together to produce deliverables.
▶ Step 6: High performance. After the project team has worked together for some time, project team members reach a high level of performance. They work well together, don’t need much oversight, and experience synergies within the project team.
▶ Step 7: Renewal. Renewal is the stage of working through changes on the project team or the project. The deliverables, stakeholders, environment, project team leadership, or team membership may change. This causes the project team to consider if the past behavior
and actions are still sufficient, or if the project team needs to go back to a previous stage to reset the expectations and ways of working together.
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The 8-Step Process for Leading Change
John Kotter introduced the 8-Step Process for Leading Change for transforming organizations.
It is a top-down approach where the need for and approach to change originates at the top levels of the organization, and then is promoted down through the organization’s layers of management to the change recipients. The eight steps are:
▶ Step 1: Create urgency. Identify potential threats and opportunities that drive the need for change.
▶ Step 2: Form a powerful coalition. Identify the change leaders. Change leaders are not necessarily based on hierarchy. The change leaders should be influential people from a variety of roles, expertise, social, and political importance.
▶ Step 3: Create a vision for change. Identify the values that are central to the change.
Then create a brief vision statement that summarizes the change. Next, identify a strategy
to realize the vision.
▶ Step 4: Communicate the vision. Communicate the vision throughout the change process. Apply the vision throughout all aspects of the organization. Senior management and the change coalition should consistently communicate the vision and demonstrate the urgency and benefits of the change.
▶ Step 5: Remove obstacles. All change comes with obstacles. Sometimes the obstacles are outdated processes, sometimes they are based on the organizational structure, and sometimes they are people resistant to change. Regardless, all obstacles need to be addressed.
▶ Step 6: Create short-term wins. Identify quick and easy wins to build momentum and support for the change.
▶ Step 7: Build on the change. Once the short-term wins are complete, the organization needs to set goals for continued improvement.
▶ Step 8: Anchor the changes in corporate culture. Ensure the change becomes ingrained into the culture: continue to communicate the vision, tell success stories, recognize people in the organization who embody and empower the change, and continue to support the change coalition.
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Conflict Models
Ken Thomas and Ralph Kilmann describes six ways of addressing conflict by focusing on the relative power between the individuals
and the desire to maintain a good relationship as follows:
▶ Confronting/problem solving. Confronting a conflict treats the conflict as a problem to be solved. This style of conflict resolution is used when the relationship between parties is important, and when each person has confidence in the other party’s ability to problem-solve.
▶ Collaborating. Collaborating involves incorporating multiple views about the conflict. The objective is to learn about the various views and see things from multiple perspectives. This is an effective method when there is trust among the participants and when there is
time to come to consensus. A project manager may facilitate this type of conflict resolution between project team members.
▶ Compromising. There are some conflicts in which all parties will not be fully satisfied. In those instances, finding a way to compromise is the best approach. Compromise entails a willingness to give and take. This allows all parties to get something they want, and it
avoids escalating the conflict. This style is often used when the parties involved have equal “power.” A project manager may compromise with a technical manager regarding the availability of a project team member to work on the project.
▶ Smoothing/accommodating. Smoothing and accommodating are useful when reaching the overarching goal is more important than the disagreement. This approach maintains harmony in the relationship and can create good will between the parties. This approach is also used when there is a difference in the relative authority or power of the individuals. For example, this approach may be appropriate when there is a disagreement with the sponsor. Since the sponsor outranks the project manager or project team member, and there is a desire to maintain a good relationship with the sponsor, adopting an accommodating posture may be appropriate.
▶ Forcing. Forcing is used when there is not enough time to collaborate or problem-solve. In this scenario, one party forces their will on the other. The party forcing has more power than the other party. A forcing style may be used if there is a health and safety conflict that needs to be resolved immediately.
▶ Withdrawal/avoiding. Sometimes a problem will go away on its own, or sometimes discussions get heated and people need a cooling-off period. In both scenarios, withdrawing from the situation is appropriate. Withdrawal is also used in a no-win scenario, such as complying with a requirement imposed by a regulatory agency instead of challenging the requirement.
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Alternatives analysis.
Alternatives analysis is used to evaluate identified options in order to select the options or approaches to perform the work of the project.
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Assumption and constraint analysis.
An assumption is a factor that is considered to
be true, real, or certain, without proof or demonstration. A constraint is a limiting factor
that affects the execution of a project, program, portfolio, or process. This form of analysis
ensures that assumptions and constraints are integrated into the project plans and
documents, and that there is consistency among them.
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Benchmarking
. Benchmarking is the comparison of actual or planned products, processes,
and practices to those of comparable organizations, which identifies best practices,
generates ideas for improvement, and provides a basis for measuring performance.
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Business justification analysis methods.
▶ This group of analysis methods is associated with authorizing or justifying a project or a decision. The outcomes of the following analyses are often used in a business case that justifies undertaking a project:
▹ Payback period. The payback period is the time needed to recover an investment,
usually in months or years.
▹ Internal rate of return (IRR). The internal rate of return is the projected annual yield of a project investment, incorporating both initial and ongoing costs into an estimated percentage growth rate a given project is expected to have.
▹ Return on investment (ROI). Return on investment is the percent return on an initial investment, calculated by taking the projected average of all net benefits and dividing them by the initial cost.
▹ Net present value (NPV). Net present value is the future value of expected benefits, expressed in the value those benefits have at the time of investment. NPV considers current and future costs and benefits and inflation.
▹ Cost-benefit analysis. A cost-benefit analysis is a financial analysis tool used to determine the benefits provided by a project against its costs.
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Payback period.
▹ The payback period is the time needed to recover an investment,
usually in months or years.
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IRR
▹ Internal rate of return (IRR). The internal rate of return is the projected annual yield of a project investment, incorporating both initial and ongoing costs into an estimated percentage growth rate a given project is expected to have.
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NPV
▹ Net present value (NPV). Net present value is the future value of expected benefits, expressed in the value those benefits have at the time of investment. NPV considers current and future costs and benefits and inflation.
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Cost-benefit analysis.
▹ A cost-benefit analysis is a financial analysis tool used to determine the benefits provided by a project against its costs.
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Check sheet.
▶ A check sheet is a tally sheet that can be used as a checklist when gathering
data. Check sheets can be used to collect and segregate data into categories. Check sheets
can also be used to create histograms and matrices as described in Section 4.6.6.
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Cost of quality.
▶The cost of quality includes all costs incurred over the life of the product
by investment in preventing nonconformance to requirements, appraisal of the product or
service for conformance to requirements, and failure to meet requirements.
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Decision tree analysis.
▶A decision tree analysis is a diagramming and calculation method
for evaluating the implications of a chain of multiple options in the presence of uncertainty.
Decision trees can use the information generated from an expected monetary value
analysis to populate the branches of the decision tree.
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EVA
▶ Earned value analysis. Earned value analysis is a method that utilizes a set of measures
associated with scope, schedule, and cost to determine the cost and schedule performance
of a project.
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EMV
▶ Expected monetary value (EMV). The expected monetary value is the estimated value
of an outcome expressed in monetary terms. It is used to quantify the value of uncertainty,
such as a risk, or compare the value of alternatives that are not necessarily equivalent. The
EMV is calculated by multiplying the probability that an event will occur and the economic
impact the event would have should it occur.
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Forecast
▶ . A forecast is an estimate or prediction of conditions and events in the project’s
future, based on information and knowledge available at the time of the forecast.
Qualitative forecasting methods use the opinions and judgments of subject matter experts.
Quantitative forecasting uses models where past information is used to predict future
performance. Causal or econometric forecasting, such as regression analysis, identifies
variables that can have significant impact on future outcomes.
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Influence diagram
▶. This diagram is a graphical representation of situations showing
causal influences, time ordering of events, and other relationships among variables
and outcomes.
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Life cycle assessment.
▶This assessment is a tool used to evaluate the total environmental
impact of a product, process, or system. It includes all aspects of producing a project
deliverable, from the origin of materials used in the deliverable to its distribution and
ultimate disposal.
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Make-or-buy analysis.
▶ A make-or-buy analysis is the process of gathering and organizing
data about product requirements and analyzing them against available alternatives such
as the purchase versus internal manufacture of the product.
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Probability and impact matrix.
▶ A probability and impact matrix is a grid for mapping the
probability of occurrence of each risk and its impact on project objectives if that risk occurs.
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Process analysis.
▶ This analysis is a systematic review of the steps and procedures to
perform an activity.
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Regression analysis.
▶ A regression analysis is an analytical technique where a series of
input variables are examined in relation to their corresponding output results in order to
develop a mathematical or statistical relationship.
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Reserve analysis.
▶ This analytical technique is used to evaluate the amount of risk on
the project and the amount of schedule and budget reserve to determine whether the
reserve is sufficient for the remaining risk. The reserve contributes to reducing risk to an
acceptable level.
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Root cause analysis.
▶ This analytical technique is used to determine the basic underlying
cause of a variance, defect, or a risk. A root cause may underlie more than one variance,
defect, or risk.
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Sensitivity analysis.
▶ This analytical technique is used to determine which individual project
risks or other sources of uncertainty have the most potential impact on project outcomes by
correlating variations in project outcomes with variations in elements of a quantitative risk
analysis model.
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Simulations.
▶ This analytical technique uses models to show the combined effect of
uncertainties in order to evaluate their potential impact on objectives. A Monte Carlo
simulation is a method of identifying the potential impacts of risk and uncertainty using
multiple iterations of a computer model to develop a probability distribution of a range of
outcomes that could result from a decision or course of action.
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Stakeholder analysis.
▶ This technique involves systematically gathering and analyzing
quantitative and qualitative information about stakeholders to determine whose interests
should be taken into account throughout the project.
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SWOT analysis.
▶ A SWOT analysis assesses the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats of an organization, project, or option.
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Trend analysis.
▶ A trend analysis uses mathematical models to forecast future outcomes
based on historical results.
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Value stream mapping.
▶ Value stream mapping is a lean enterprise method used to
document, analyze, and improve the flow of information or materials required to produce
a product or service for a customer.
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Variance analysis.
▶ Variance analysis is used to determine the cause and degree of
difference between the baseline and actual performance.
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What-if scenario analysis.
▶ This analytical technique evaluates scenarios in order to
predict their effect on project objectives.
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Affinity grouping.
▶ Affinity grouping involves classifying items into similar categories or
collections on the basis of their likeness. Common affinity groupings include T-shirt sizing
and Fibonacci numbers.
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Analogous estimating.
▶Analogous estimating assesses the duration or cost of an activity
or a project using historical data from a similar activity or project.
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Function point.
▶A function point is an estimate of the amount of business functionality in
an information system. Function points are used to calculate a functional size measurement
(FSM) of a software system.
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Multipoint estimating.
▶ Multipoint estimating assesses cost or duration by applying an average or weighted average of optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the individual activity estimates.
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Parametric estimating.
▶ Parametric estimating uses an algorithm to calculate cost or duration based on historical data and project parameters.
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Relative estimating.
▶ Relative estimating is used to create estimates that are derived from performing a comparison against a similar body of work, taking effort, complexity, and uncertainty into consideration. Relative estimating is not necessarily based on absolute units of cost or time. Story points are a common unitless measure used in relative estimating.
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Single-point estimating
▶ . Single-point estimating involves using data to calculate a single value that reflects a best-guess estimate. A single-point estimate is opposed to a range estimate, which includes the best- and worst-case scenario.
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Story point estimating.
▶ Story point estimating involves project team members assigning abstract, but relative, points of effort required to implement a user story. It tells the project team about the difficulty of the story considering the complexity, risks, and effort involved.
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Wideband Delphi.
▶ Wideband Delphi is a variation of the Delphi estimating method where subject matter experts complete multiple rounds of producing estimates individually, with a project team discussion after each round, until a consensus is achieved. For Wideband Delphi, those who created the highest and lowest estimates explain their rationale, following which everyone reestimates. The process repeats until convergence is achieved. Planning poker is a variation of Wideband Delphi.
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Delphi estimating
Delphi estimating is a forecasting method that uses a series of questionnaires to collect opinions from a group of experts. The goal is to reach a consensus on a topic or predict future events
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Backlog refinement.
▶ At a backlog refinement meeting, the backlog is progressively
elaborated and (re)prioritized to identify the work that can be accomplished in an
upcoming iteration.
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Bidder conference.
▶ Meetings with prospective sellers prior to the preparation of a bid
or proposal to ensure all prospective vendors have a clear and common understanding
of the procurement. This meeting may also be known as contractor conferences, vendor
conferences, or pre-bid conferences.
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Change control board.
▶ A change control board meeting includes the group of people
who are accountable for reviewing, evaluating, approving, delaying, or rejecting changes
to the project. The decisions made at this meeting are recorded and communicated to the
appropriate stakeholders. This meeting may also be referred to as a change control meeting.
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Daily standup.
▶ A standup is a brief collaboration meeting during which the project team
reviews its progress from the previous day, declares intentions for the current day, and
highlights any obstacles encountered or anticipated. This meeting may also be referred to
as a daily scrum.
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Iteration planning.
▶ An iteration planning meeting is used to clarify the details of the
backlog items, acceptance criteria, and work effort required to meet an upcoming iteration
commitment. This meeting may also be referred to as a sprint planning meeting.
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Kickoff
▶ . A kickoff meeting is a gathering of project team members and other key
stakeholders at the outset of a project to formally set expectations, gain a common
understanding, and commence work. It establishes the start of a project, phase,
or iteration.
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Iteration review.
▶ Iteration review. An iteration review is held at the end of an iteration to demonstrate the
work that was accomplished during the iteration. This meeting may also be referred to as a
sprint review.
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Lessons learned meeting.
▶ A lessons learned meeting is used to identify and share the
knowledge gained during a project, phase, or iteration with a focus on improving project
team performance. This meeting can address situations that could have been handled
better in addition to good practices and situations that produced very favorable outcomes.
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Planning meeting.
▶ A planning meeting is used to create, elaborate, or review a plan or
plans and secure commitment for the plan(s).
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Project closeout.
▶ A project closeout meeting is used to obtain final acceptance of the
delivered scope from the sponsor, product owner, or client. This meeting indicates that
the product delivery is complete.
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Project review.
▶ A project review meeting is an event at the end of a phase or a project
to assess the status, evaluate the value delivered, and determine if the project is ready to
move to the next phase, or transition to operations.
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Release planning.
▶ Release planning meetings identify a high-level plan for releasing
or transitioning a product, deliverable, or increment of value.
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Retrospective.
▶ A retrospective is a regularly occurring workshop in which participants
explore their work and results in order to improve both process and product.
Retrospectives are a form of lessons learned meeting.
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Risk review.
▶ A meeting to analyze the status of existing risks and identify new risks.
This includes determining if the risk is still active and if there have been changes to the
risk attributes (such as probability, impact, urgency, etc.). Risk responses are evaluated
to determine if they are effective or should be updated. New risks may be identified
and analyzed and risks that are no longer active may be closed. Risk reassessment is an
example of a risk-review meeting.
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Steering committee.
▶ A meeting where senior stakeholders provide direction and support
to the project team and make decisions outside of the project team’s authority.
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Status meeting.
▶ A status meeting is a regularly scheduled event to exchange and analyze
information about the current progress of the project and its performance.
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Impact mapping.
▶ Impact mapping is a strategic planning method that serves as a visual
roadmap for the organization during product development.
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Modeling
▶ . Modeling is the process of creating simplified representations of systems,
solutions, or deliverables such as prototypes, diagrams, or storyboards. Modeling can
facilitate further analysis by identifying gaps in information, areas of miscommunication,
or additional requirements.
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NPS
▶ Net Promoter Score® (NPS®). An index that measures the willingness of customers to
recommend an organization’s products or services to others. The score is used as a proxy
for gauging the customer’s overall satisfaction with an organization’s product or service
and the customer’s loyalty to the brand.
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Prioritization schema.
▶ Prioritization schema are methods used to prioritize portfolio,
program, or project components, as well as requirements, risks, features, or other product
information. Examples include a multicriteria weighted analysis and the MoSCoW (must
have, should have, could have, and won’t have) method.
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Timebox
▶ . A timebox is a short, fixed period of time in which work is to be completed,
such as 1 week, 2 weeks, or 1 month.
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Business case.
▶ A business case is a value proposition for a proposed project that may
include financial and nonfinancial benefits.
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Business model canvas.
▶ This artifact is a one-page visual summary that describes the
value proposition, infrastructure, customers, and finances. These are often used in lean
start-up situations.
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Project brief.
▶ A project brief provides a high-level overview of the goals, deliverables, and
processes for the project.
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Project charter
. A project charter is a document issued by the project initiator or sponsor
that formally authorizes the existence of a project and provides the project manager with
the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
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Project vision statement.
▶ This document is a concise, high-level description of the project
that states the purpose, and inspires the project team to contribute to the project.
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Roadmap
▶ . This document provides a high-level time line that depicts milestones, significant
events, reviews, and decision points.
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Assumption log.
▶ An assumption is a factor that is considered to be true, real, or certain,
without proof or demonstration. A constraint is a factor that limits the options for managing
a project, program, portfolio, or process. An assumption log records all assumptions and
constraints throughout the project.
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Backlog
▶ . A backlog is an ordered list of work to be done. Projects may have a product
backlog, a requirements backlog, impediments backlog, and so forth. Items in a backlog are
prioritized. The prioritized work is then scheduled for upcoming iterations.
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Change log.
▶ A change log is a comprehensive list of changes submitted during the
project and their current status. A change can be a modification to any formally controlled
deliverable, project management plan component, or project document.
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Issue log.
▶An issue is a current condition or situation that may have an impact on the
project objectives. An issue log is used to record and monitor information on active issues.
Issues are assigned to a responsible party for follow up and resolution.
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Risk-adjusted backlog.
▶ A risk-adjusted backlog is a backlog that includes work and actions
to address threats and opportunities.
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Risk register.
▶ A risk register is a repository in which outputs of risk management
processes are recorded. Information in a risk register can include the person responsible
for managing the risk, probability, impact, risk score, planned risk responses, and other
information used to get a high-level understanding of individual risks.
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Stakeholder register
▶ . A stakeholder register records information about project
stakeholders, which includes an assessment and classification of project stakeholders.
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Communications management plan.
▶This plan is a component of the project, program,
or portfolio management plan that describes how, when, and by whom information about
the project will be administered and disseminated.
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Change control plan.
▶ A change control plan is a component of the project management
plan that establishes the change control board, documents the extent of its authority, and
describes how the change control system will be implemented.
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Cost management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of a project or program management
plan that describes how costs will be planned, structured, and controlled.
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Iteration plan.
▶ This plan is a detailed plan for the current iteration.
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Procurement management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project or program management plan that describes how a project team will acquire goods and services from outside of the performing organization.
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Project management plan.
▶The project management plan is a document that describes
how the project will be executed, monitored and controlled, and closed.
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Quality management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project or program
management plan that describes how applicable policies, procedures, and guidelines
will be implemented to achieve the quality objectives.
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Release plan.
▶ This plan sets expectations for the dates, features, and/or outcomes
expected to be delivered over the course of multiple iterations.
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Requirements management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project or program
management plan that describes how requirements will be analyzed, documented,
and managed.
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Resource management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project management plan
that describes how project resources are acquired, allocated, monitored, and controlled.
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Risk management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project, program, or portfolio
management plan that describes how risk management activities will be structured
and performed.
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Scope management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project or program
management plan that describes how the scope will be defined, developed, monitored,
controlled, and validated.
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Schedule management plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project or program
management plan that establishes the criteria and the activities for developing,
monitoring, and controlling the schedule.
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Stakeholder engagement plan.
▶ This plan is a component of the project management
plan that identifies the strategies and actions required to promote productive involvement
of stakeholders in project or program decision making and execution.
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Test plan.
▶ This document describes deliverables that will be tested, tests that will be
conducted, and the processes that will be used in testing. It forms the basis for formally
testing the components and deliverables.
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Organizational breakdown structure.
▶ This chart is a hierarchical representation of the
project organization, which illustrates the relationship between project activities and the
organizational units that will perform those activities.
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Product breakdown structure.
▶ This chart is a hierarchical structure reflecting a product’s
components and deliverables.
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Risk breakdown structure.
▶ This chart is a hierarchical representation of potential
sources of risks.
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Resource breakdown structure.
▶ This chart is a hierarchical representation of resources
by category and type.
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Work breakdown structure.
▶ This chart is a hierarchical decomposition of the total
scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish the project objectives
and create the required deliverables.
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Budget
▶ . A budget is the approved estimate for the project or any work breakdown
structure (WBS) component or any schedule activity.
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Milestone schedule.
▶ Milestone schedule. This type of schedule presents milestones with planned dates.
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Performance measurement baseline.
▶ Integrated scope, schedule, and cost baselines
are used for comparison to manage, measure, and control project execution.
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Project schedule.
▶ A project schedule is an output of a schedule model that presents
linked activities with planned dates, durations, milestones, and resources.
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Scope baseline.
▶ This baseline is the approved version of a scope statement, work
breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated WBS dictionary that can be changed using
formal change control procedures and is used as the basis for comparison to actual results.
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Affinity diagram.
▶ This diagram shows large numbers of ideas classified into groups for
review and analysis.
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Burndown/burnup chart.
▶This chart is a graphical representation of the work remaining
in a timebox or the work completed toward the release of a product or project deliverable.
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Cause-and-effect diagram.
▶This diagram is a visual representation that helps trace an
undesirable effect back to its root cause.
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CFD
▶ Cumulative flow diagram (CFD). This chart indicates features completed over time,
features in development, and those in the backlog. It may also include features at
intermediate states, such as features designed but not yet constructed, those in quality
assurance, or those in testing.
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Cycle time chart.
▶ This diagram shows the average cycle time of the work items completed
over time. A cycle time chart may be shown as a scatter diagram or a bar chart.
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Flowchart
▶ . This diagram depicts the inputs, process actions, and outputs of one or more
processes within a system.
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Dashboards
▶ . This set of charts and graphs shows progress or performance against
important measures of the project.
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Gantt chart.
▶ This bar chart provides schedule information where activities are listed on the
vertical axis, dates are shown on the horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown
as horizontal bars placed according to start and finish dates.
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Histogram
▶ . This bar chart shows the graphical representation of numerical data.
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Information radiator.
▶ This artifact is a visible, physical display that provides information
to the rest of the organization, enabling timely knowledge sharing.
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Lead time chart.
▶This diagram shows the trend over time of the average lead time of the
items completed in work. A lead time chart may be shown as a scatter diagram or a bar chart.
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Prioritization matrix.
▶ This matrix is a scatter diagram where effort is shown on the
horizontal axis and value on the vertical axis, divided into four quadrants to classify items
by priority.
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Project schedule network diagram.
▶ This graphical representation shows the logical relationships among the project schedule activities.
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Requirements traceability matrix.
▶This matrix links product requirements from their origin to the deliverables that satisfy them.
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Scatter diagram.
▶ Scatter diagram. This graph shows the relationship between two variables.
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RAM
▶ Responsibility assignment matrix (RAM). This matrix is a grid that shows the project
resources assigned to each work package. A RACI chart is a common way of showing
stakeholders who are responsible, accountable, consulted, or informed and are associated
with project activities, decisions, and deliverables.
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Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix.
▶ Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix. This matrix compares current and
desired stakeholder engagement levels.
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S-curve.
▶ S-curve. This graph displays cumulative costs over a specified period of time.
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Story map.
▶ A story map is a visual model of all the features and functionality desired for
a given product, created to give the project team a holistic view of what they are building
and why.
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Throughput chart.
▶ This chart shows the accepted deliverables over time. A throughput
chart may be shown as a scatter diagram or a bar chart.
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Use case.
▶ This artifact describes and explores how a user interacts with a system to
achieve a specific goal.
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Value stream map.
▶ This is a lean enterprise method used to document, analyze, and
improve the flow of information or materials required to produce a product or service for
a customer. Value stream maps can be used to identify waste.
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Velocity chart.
▶This chart tracks the rate at which the deliverables are produced, validated,
and accepted within a predefined interval.
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Quality report.
This project document includes quality management issues,
recommendations for corrective actions, and a summary of findings from quality control
activities. It may include recommendations for process, project, and product improvements.
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Risk report.
▶ This project document is developed progressively throughout the risk
management processes and summarizes information on individual project risks and the
level of overall project risk.
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Status report.
▶ This document provides a report on the current status of the project.
It may include information on progress since the last report and forecasts for cost and
schedule performance.
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Fixed-price contracts.
▶ This category of contract involves setting a fixed price for a
well-defined product, service, or result. Fixed-price contracts include firm fixed price (FFP),
fixed-price incentive fee (FPIF), and fixed price with economic price adjustment (FP-EPA),
among others.
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Cost-reimbursable contracts.
▶ This category of contracts involves payments to the seller
for actual costs incurred for completing the work plus a fee representing seller profit. These
contracts are often used when the project scope is not well defined or is subject to frequent
change. Cost-reimbursable contracts include cost plus award fee (CPAF), cost plus fixed fee
(CPFF), and cost plus incentive fee (CPIF).
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Time and materials
▶ (T&M). This contract establishes a fixed rate, but not a precise
statement of work. It can be used for staff augmentation, subject matter expertise,
or other outside support.
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Indefinite delivery indefinite quantity
▶(IDIQ). This contract provides for an indefinite
quantity of goods or services, with a stated lower and upper limit, and within a fixed
time period. These contracts can be used for architectural, engineering, or information
technology engagements.
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SLA
service level agreement (SLA),
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BOA
basic ordering
agreement (BOA),
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crashing
Crashing adds resources to the project and will generally increase the cost. Since the team will be working overtime, this will result in additional costs to the project.
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fast racking
Fast tracking is when you run activities in parallel.
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fishbone analysis
A Fishbone analysis is done during the generate insight step in a retrospective to show the reasons for why something failed.
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withdrawl
which is when they postpone the issue to a later date to be better prepared.
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qualitative risk process
A qualitative risk process is done to rank the risk that has been identified in the identify risk process.
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Rolling wave planning
Rolling wave planning is when planning is done at multiple points in time as data becomes available.
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determine budget process
The determine budget process is where the tool of financing is used to seek funding for the project. Develop project charter is used to get the project authorized. Plan cost management is used to create the cost management plan. Determine project financing is a made-up process.
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estimate activity resources
will output the resource breakdown structure, which is a hierarchal breakdown of resources by their categories and types
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Pull communication
is done when stakeholders access the communications on their own time, usually through a web portal.
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Ishikawa diagrams
, or cause-and-effect diagrams, are used to identify probable causes and sub-causes of a particular problem.
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Upwards influence
is for stakeholders above you such as senior management.
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Sideways influence
is for those who are your peers such as other project managers.
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Downward influence
is for those below you such as team members.
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Outwards influence
is for those who are external, such as vendors.
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Sunk Cost
Sunk cost is the money that has already been spent on the project.
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