PNB 2274 Exam 4 TANNER/CHEN Flashcards
(227 cards)
1
Q
rectus muscles
A
left, right, up, down
2
Q
oblique muscles
A
angular directions
3
Q
abducens
A
lateral rectus
4
Q
trochlear
A
superior oblique
5
Q
cornea
A
shields eye from germs and dust, focuses light onto retina
6
Q
iris
A
colored disc; separates cornea from lens
creates anterior and posterior chamber
aperture for light
7
Q
anterior chamber
A
between cornea and iris
8
Q
posterior chamber
A
between iris and lens
9
Q
eye color pigments
A
melanin, lipochrome
10
Q
melanin
A
brown color
11
Q
lipochrome
A
gold tone
12
Q
no pigment in iris
A
pink from blood vessels
13
Q
some pigment in iris
A
blue from radiscattering
14
Q
sphincter pupillae
A
contracts to make pupil small
parasympathetic
15
Q
dilator pupillae
A
relaxes to dilate eye
sympathetic
16
Q
relaxed ciliary muscle
A
ligaments taut, lens stretched, refracts less light
distance
17
Q
contracted ciliary msucle
A
ligaments loose, lens relaxed, more refraction of light
close focus
18
Q
lens
A
adjust focus to near and far
provides mode of transduction for muscle contraction
19
Q
aqueous humor
A
water fluid, refracts light
20
Q
vitreous humor
A
gelatinous collagen fibers, maintains pressure of eye
hyaluronic acid gives structure; peripheral cells, inorganic salts, ascorbic acid
21
Q
fovea
A
many cones
22
Q
macula
A
with fovea; area of highest visual acuity due to cone density
23
Q
macula degeneration
A
lack of blood flow that causes blindness
24
Q
optic disc
A
nerve entry point; blind spot due to no sensory cells
25
pigments
absorb light; melanin keeps photons from bouncing around
26
cones
detect light and color; day vision
27
cone pigment
opsin
3 visual pigments named by peak absorption
red, green, blue
28
red/green colorblindness
loss of red gene, perception of yellow and orange as green
29
rods
light intensity, sensitive to scattered light; night vision
30
rod pigment
rhodopsin = opsin and retinal
31
inactive (in dark) rhodopsin
11-cis
32
active (in light) rhodopsin
11-trans
33
rod cells in the dark
```
rhodopsin inactive
cGMP levels high
CNG channels open
membrane depolarizing
NT released
```
34
depth perception
when light hits 2D surface, there are 2 cues for 3D:
monocular, binocular
35
monocular cue for depth perception
determines distance
36
binocular cue for depth perception
stereopsis; relative positions
| based on retinal disparity
37
horizontal cells
large receptive fields
| allows eyes to adjust to light from lateral inhibition
38
amacrine cells
producing type M cells and integrates rods and cones with bipolar cells
39
bipolar cells
brightness and color contrast; graded response; two types
40
why do bipolar cells use graded responses?
graded potentials are important because light intensity varies whereas regular AP is all or none
Varying light allows varying depolarization with varying vesicular release of NT
41
on bipolar cells
depolarization/ responsive in light
glutamate hyperpolarizes
light hits rods; rods release less NT; stops hyperpolarization; bipolar cell is now active
42
off bipolar cells
hyperpolarization in light
glutamate depolarizes
darkness hits rods; rods release a lot of NT; bipolar cell depolarizes and is active
43
lateral geniculate nucleus
4 parvi layers, a copule magni layers
point to point projection from retina to LGN
3 parallel pathways
44
3 parallel pathways in LGN
m-blob pathway
p-blob pathway
p-interblob pathway
45
m-blob pathway
rod pathway
46
p-blob pathway
color perception (cone) pathway
47
p-interblob pathway
depth, form (cone) pathway
48
primary visual cortex (striate; V1)
2D primal sketch; no color, depth, or form
simple cortical cells, complex cortical cells
two streams:
dorsal and ventral
49
simple cortical cells
perceives bars
50
complex cortical cells
perceives other stimuli with wider fields; more preference for orientation
51
dorsal stream
where pathway
motion
towards upper portion of head
motion and eye movement to inferior parietal lobe
52
ventral stream
what pathway
form and color
towards side of head
53
inferior temporal lobe (V4)
form and color
54
medial temporal lobe
motion processing
55
association visual cortex (extrastriate)
25 higher visual processing areas
56
inferior temporal cortex
facial recognition
57
achromatopia
color can be sensed but there is no comprehension of it
58
sound wave
pressure waves impinging on the air which creates a compression wave which is perceived as sound
characterized by frequency and intensity
59
frequency
how often the waves strike the air
directly related to pitch
measured in hertz
60
frequencies humans can hear
20-20kHz
61
intensity
loudness; amplitude of sound waves
| measured in decibles
62
external ear (pinna)
funnels sound into ear canal
63
middle ear
auditory ossicles
incus, stapes, malleus
64
auditory ossicles
force multiplier; deal with impedance mismatch and transduce air waves into water waves
65
process of sound transmission
air vibrates tympanic membrane which are amplified and transduced by auditory ossicles into water waves; this fluid vibrates the oval window of the cochlea; first travels through the vestibular canal, then tympanic, towards round window
66
impedence
difference in how medias conduct waves
67
impedance mismatch
difference in how readily the different media conduct waves
68
cochlea
uses hair cells to transduce waves into electrochemical signal and connects to auditory nerve
69
semicircular canals
balance and sense of accelleration
70
vestibular apparatus
balance and accelleration
71
oval and round window
membranes to prevent leaks
72
3 canals/ ducts in cochlea
tympanic, vestibular, cochlear
73
cochlear duct
organ of corti;
fundamental hearing organ
basilar membrane and hair cells
74
basilar membrane
thick and thin at different ends and can vibrate at different frequencies
75
inner hair cells
sensory receptors
76
outer hair cells
increase amplitude and sound clarity
77
tympanic reflex
very loud sounds (high amplitude) can cause damage
reflex: the tensor tympani and stapedius muscle contract and put a limit on the tympanic membrane vibration to limit sound transmission
78
kinocilium
peak stereocilium; moved with tectorial membrane
79
when stereocilium bend towards the kinocilium...
cell depolarizes from mechanical opening of nonselective cation channels
80
when stereocilium bend away from the kinocilium...
cell hyperpolarizes from the mechanical closing of nonselective cation channels and K+ leak channels dominate
81
endolymph
hair on the hair cell fluid; 80mV, high K+ concentration (calcium is low because it degrades tip links)
82
Perilymph
hair CELL fluid; 0mv; low K+ concentration
83
cochlear duct
scala media
84
vestibular canal
scala vestibuli
85
tympanic canal
scala tympani
86
upward phase of basilar membrane
tip links open; depolarization; excitation of sensory neurons
87
downward phase of basilar membrane
tip links close; hyperpolarization
88
frequency coding
physical mechanism for sound transmission
low frequencies: vibrates helicotroma region because it is thinner and less rigid
high frequencies: vibrates close to oval window
89
labeled line system
neurons that make contact with hair cells at/near oval window are tagged to represent a different frequency than neurons
tonotopic map
90
alternating current (AC)
up to 1000 Hz; high fidelity
| 300 Hz = 300x depolarization
91
direct current (DC)
2000 Hz and up; low fidelity because baseline is more depolarized and depolarization is therefore more favorable
92
direct current (DC)
2000 Hz and up; low fidelity because baseline is more depolarized and depolarization is therefore more favorable
93
intensity coding
frequency of AP is proportional to loudness
| rate coding: neuron firing is indicative of intensity
94
phase lock firing
cannot fire at high frequencies, so hair cells will respond but neuron will fire at intervals
95
PRIMARILY how will neurons rate code at frequencies LESS than 1000Hz?
via the labeled line system and AC with high fidelity
96
PRIMARILY how will neurons rate code at frequencies HIGHER than 2000Hz?
via the labeled line system and DC with less fidelity (and phase lock firing)
97
somatic nervous system
conscious control of motor output; voluntary
98
brainstem pathway
indirect; subcortical
alters motor neuron sensitivity and activates feedback loops
axial and proximal muscle control: posture and equilibrium
99
brainstem pathway tracts
rubrospinal
tectospinal
vestibulospinal
reticulospinal
100
rubrospinal tract
stems from red nucleus; excites flexor and inhibits extensor; movement of limbs (arm, leg)
101
tectospinal tract
stems from superior colliculus; visual reflexes and orienting the eye and head towards visual stimuli
102
vestibulospinal tract
stems from vestibular nucleus; balance and orientation
103
reticulospinal tract
stems from reticular formation; posture and balance
104
corticospinal pathway
direct; pyramidal (decussation in medulla)
rapid and fine movements of distal extremities
105
corticospinal pathway tracts
lateral corticospinal tract
anterior corticospinal tract
corticobulbar pathway
106
lateral corticospinal tract
skilled movements in the limbs (fingers)
107
anterior corticospinal tract
innervates axial skeletal muscle; extra source of control
108
corticobulbar pathway
voluntary control of head and neck muscle
not in spinal cord
109
dorsolateral pathway
control of limbs; fine motor control; skilled movements
rubrospinal, lateral corticospinal
110
ventromedial pathway
axial and proximal muscle, posture, balance, equilibrium
reticulospinal, tectospinal, anterior corticospinal, vestibulospinal
111
motor regions of cerebral cortex
primary motor cortex (M1)
secondary motor areas
association areas
112
primary motor cortex (M1)
direction and speed; sends "go" signal
113
secondary motor areas
planning
SMA and premotor
114
supplementary motor area (SMA)
bilateral movement
115
premotor cortex
mirror neurons (allows you to learn how to use a tool before actually touching it)
116
association areas
prefrontal cortex
| parietal cortex
117
parietal cortex
goal/target location; hand- eye coordination
118
spinal cord motor disorders: quadriplegia
paralysis of all limbs
119
spinal cord motor disorders: paraplegia
paralysis of lower limbs
120
motor cortex disorders: hemiplegia
paralysis of contralateral limbs (M1 damage)
121
motor cortex disorders: hemiparesis
weakness, impaired control of contralateral limbs (SMA damage)
122
motor cortex disorders:
| secondary / association motor areas
apraxia
123
apraxia
loss of ability to generate coordinated actions; stroke of premotor or parietal, left hemisphere lesions
124
praxis: outcome of tapping experiments
dominant hand generates better movement
125
praxis: outcome of sequential tapping experiments
right hand generates better movement
126
why did the right hand generate better sequential tapping movements?
hemisphere lateralization: left brain controls the right hand
127
hierarchy of motor control
1. Parietal (uses spatial info to develop action goal)
2. Premotor / SMA (translates goal into movement trajectory)
3. Primary motor cortex (translates plan into motor command)
4. Spine (activates muscles and maintains reflexes)
128
basal nuclei
modulates motor output to prevent unwanted movement
129
parkinson's disease
loss of dopaminergic neurons which excites both pathways
fixed by L-dopa (dopamine)
130
characteristics of parkinson's disease
rigidity, slow movement, parkinsonian mask, hands do stuff
131
huntington's disease
destruction of indirect pathway in basal ganglia
132
characteristics of huntington's disease
abnormal involuntary movement because more excitatory; huntington's chorea
133
afferent neurons
neurons going towards the CNS
134
efferent neurons
neurons going away from CNS
135
what was the activity in monkeys about?
electrical activity was recorded in the M1 in monkeys during reaching movements
finding: when moving hand to the right, neurons don't fire; when moving hand to the left, they do fire
significance: cells have a preferred direction; tells you which neurons fire during specific directions and you can stimulate these neurons to command movements
136
autonomic nervous system
efferent innervation of tissues other than skeletal; involuntary
137
sympathetic autonomic nervous system division
fight or flight
lumbar and thoracic spine nuclei
overall excitatory
short pre ganglionic axons, long post ganglionic axons
138
preganglionic neurons in sympathetic
all release Ach
139
postganglionic neurons in sympathetic
epinephrine and norepinephrine
140
termination of norepinephrine and epinephrine
active transport, diffusion, enzymatic degradation (MAO)
141
sympathetic division post-ganglionic neuron
sympathetic chain
collateral ganglia
adrenal medulla
142
sympathetic chain
paravertebral ganglia directly adjacent to spine on both sides
143
collateral ganglia
excretory and alimentary;
celiac
superior mesenteric
inferior mesenteric
144
celiac collateral ganglia
stomach and duodenum
145
superior mesenteric collateral ganglia
pancreas, liver, kidney, colon
146
inferior mesenteric collateral ganglia
colon
147
adrenal medulla post ganglionic neuron
endocrine gland; medulla has modified (not quite neuronal) sympathetic ganglion
chromaffin cells in medulla secrete norepi and epi
148
parasympathetic autonomic nervous system division
rest and digest
preganglionic nuclei emerge from cranial nerves and sacral region of spinal cord
149
CN III (parasympathetic division)
ciliary ganglion; intrinsic eye muscles
150
CN VII (parasympathetic division)
pteryopalatine and submandibular ganglion (wtf); nasal, tear, salivary glands
151
CN IX (parasympathetic division)
otic ganglion; parotid salivary
152
CN X (parasympathetic division)
intramural ganglia; visceral organs of neck, thoracic, abdominal
broad effects
** vagus ** most important
153
nuclei in S2-S4 pelvic nerves (parasympathetic division)
intramural ganglia; visceral organs in inferior portion of abdominopelvic cavity
154
target organs of autonomic nervous system
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, adipocyte, glands
155
cholinergic receptor subtypes
nicotinic and muscarinic
156
nicotinic cholinergic receptor
ionotropic
always excitatory
autonomic ganglia in both divisions
157
nicotinic receptor agonist
Ach, Nicotine
158
nicotinic receptor antagonist
TEA, currare
159
muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtypes
metabotropic
target organs of parasympathetic
160
agonist muscarinic
Ach, muscarine
161
antagonist muscarinic
atropine
162
adrenergic receptor subtypes
```
alpha 1
alpha 2
beta 1
beta 2
beta 3
```
163
Alpha 1
Gq coupled
smooth muscle constriction
vasoconstriction, increase in BP
164
Alpha 2
Gi coupled
| inhibitory release of NE and Ach
165
Beta 1
Gs coupled
| increase in contractility; tachycardia
166
Beta 2
Gs coupled
| relax, vasodilation
167
Beta 3
Gs coupled,
| enhance lipolysis
168
horizontal plane sound localization
```
loudness difference (above 3000Hz)
time difference (below 3000Hz)
```
169
loudness difference horizontal sound localization
lateral superior olive encodes location through interaural intensity differences
excitation neuron perceives sound from one hemisphere which excites a neuron in LSO; at the same time, an axon from that hemisphere splits and sends axon to contralateral side and excites inhibition on the contralateral side; one side is all excitatory and perceived as closer to that ear
170
time difference horizontal sound localization
medial superior olive computes sound by interaural time differences
series of neurons in MS are connected to neurons from cochlea
171
vertical plane sound localization
the phase and change in sound wave; ears reflect and filter sound difference from top and bottom
172
unilateral lesion of auditory cortex
little effect
173
bilateral damage of auditory cortex
trouble distinguishing frequency and intensity, localization, speech understanding
174
peripheral or cochlear damage
unilateral deafness
175
damage to tympanic membrane or ossicles
results in impaired perception of all frequencies
176
conductive deafness
trouble with sound transmission; modern hearing aid amplifies sound
177
sensorineural (perception) deafness
too much excitation results in damaged hair cells which can be fixed with a cochlear implant
178
organs innervated only by sympathetic nervous system
```
adrenal medulla
arrector pili muscles
sweat glands
most blood vessels
nonshivering thermogenesis
```
179
autonomic reflex centers
receptors from sensory neurons pick up stimulus
2 pathways: long and short
180
long autonomic reflex
sensory neuron synapses to interneuron spinal cord; interneuron synapses to preganglionic neuron in spinal cord; then to postganglionic neuron; postganglionic neuron will synapse on target organ
181
short autonomic reflex
sensory neuron synapses to interneuron; skips preganglionic neuron; then synapses with postganglionic neuron which synapses on target organ
182
sympathetic reflex
cardioacceleratory
| vasomotor reflex
183
parasympathetic reflex
swallowing reflex
gastric and intestinal reflex
coughing reflex
184
endocrine system
slow chemical messenger
185
endocrine glands
have ducts; pancreas, thyroid pituitary, parathyroid, adrenal, gonads, placenta
186
endocrine tissues
lungs, heart, liver, GI, adipose
187
tissues that modify hormones
lungs, skin, liver, kidney
188
peptide hormone synthesis
preprohormone to prohormone to hormone
189
release of peptides and catecholamines
exocytosis
190
release of steroids and thyroid hormones
simple diffusion
191
transport of steroids and thyroid hormones
carrier proteins
192
half life of peptide and catecholamines
short
193
half life of steroids and thyroid hormones
long
194
transport of peptides and catecholamines
dissolution in plasma
195
response to binding peptide and catecholamines
second messenger system activation
196
response to binding steroids and thyroid hormones
gene transcription and translation
197
general response of peptide hormones and catecholamines
modification of existing proteins (new protein synthesis for peptides too)
198
general response of steroid hormones and thyroid hormones
induction of new protein synthesis
199
examples of peptide hormones
insulin, PTH
200
examples of steroid hormones
sex steroids, corticosteroids
201
examples of catecholamines
epinephrine, norepinephrine
202
thyroid homonres
T3, T4
203
tyrosine derivatives
catecholamines, thyroid hormones
204
tryptophan derivative
melatonin
205
why does the liver and kidney excrete peptide hormones and catecholamines?
they are quicker and easier to excrete since they are dissolved in the plasma
206
first messenger
hormone
207
second messenger
cAMP
208
types of G proteins
alpha, beta, gamma
209
types of Galpha proteins
stimulatory, inhibitory, q
210
describe the sitmulatory cAMP pathway
1. Hormone binds to Gprotein coupled receptor and undergoes conformational change
2. G alpha s protein detaches from membrane and drops GDP which characterized it as inactive
3. G alpha s protein attaches to GTP, becoming active
4. adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
5. cAMP is now the second messenger and can be phosphorylated by protein kinase A and can be amplified
211
hormone secretion is controlled by...
circadian rhythms
ion concentration changes
plasma changes
NT activation
212
complex control of hormone secretion
hypothalamus secretes releasing hormone --> pituitary gland secretes tropic hormone --> endocrine gland secretes effector hormone onto --> target cell/ organ
213
hypothalamus
neural control of hormone release
Supraoptic region produces oxytocin and ADH
214
oxytocin
uterine contraction, milk, romance
215
ADH
urine, water conservation
216
supraoptic region
Paraventricular nucleus
| Supraoptic nucleus
217
anterior pituitary gland
secretes tropic hormones, responds to hypothalamus and controls other glands
epithelial tissue
218
posterior pituitary gland
stores ADH and oxytocin
nervous tissue
219
endocrine gland (complex control pathway)
produces effector hormone
220
hypophyseal portal system
carotid artery --> primary capillary plexus --> portal vein --> secondary capillary plexus --> jugular vein
221
primary capillary plexus
in median eminence; delivers RH from hypothalamus to pituitary
222
portal vein
connects pri capillary plexus to secondary capillary plexus
223
secondary capillary plexus
delivers tropic hormones
224
jugular vein
receives tropic hormones and distributes it
225
short loop feedback control
tropic hormone controls hypothalamus and inhibits it
226
long loop feedback control
effector hormone on hypothalamus and pituitary
227
simple control
calcium levels are high: calcitonin is raised; calcium goes into bones; calcium level is now lower
