Poli 341: Foreign Policy in the Middle East Flashcards

Question

# Studying the Middle East Can scholars “help” instill democracy under occupation?

Answer 1

- Political scientist Larry Diamond opposed the US Iraq invasion. - Nevertheless, he agreed to apply his expertise in helping to draft a new Iraqi constitution. - Afterwards he wrote a book about it. - Begs the questions: was the US occupation doomed to fail, or did it fail because of mismanagement?

Answer 2

1) The process of state formation in developing countries underscores colonial powers' role 2) The Western role in drawing Middle Eastern borders and the impacts on interstate relations within the region and beyond. 3) Domestic instability in some Middle Eastern states was reflected in their foreign policies, contributing to turmoil 4) "European club of states" set the rules of the game making it difficult for non-European states to join however, this is difficult because of colonial control.

Answer 3

- Arab subjects came to know “stateness” because of the Empire reforming to avoid decline.

Answer 4

1) A legal system 2) Provincial, regional, and local elections 3) Bureaucracy (shift from a patrimony system of people getting jobs based on families to a meritocratic system where you studied and passed a state exam) 4) “Census, land registration, the tax office, and military conscription” (Rogan, p.43) 5) Investment in infrastructure and construction

Answer 5

- It reflects European notions of nation-states rooted in national identity -National identity transcends race, religion etc

Answer 6

- Arab resentment of the Ottoman Empire grew after the 1908 “Young Turk” revolution sought to centralize Ottoman rule - The Arab Revolt (1916-17) against Ottoman rule helped to crystalize a sense of Arab nationalism based on a vision of self-determination - As much as this revolt was homegrown within Arab communities, the Arab Revolt was also the direct result of an alliance with the British (the years map over WWI).

Answer 7

- They didn't want the Ottoman Empire to strengthen but wanted to gain independence - Arab people should govern themselves

Answer 8

- As fighting raged between the British and the Ottoman Turks in WWI, Sharif Husayn of Mecca addressed a letter to the British High Commissioner in Cairo, Sir Henry McMahon

Answer 9

1) Husayn expressed the national aspirations of Arab peoples living under Ottoman rule, and sought British support for their independence struggle, including arms and material 2) McMahon resisted Husayn’s territorial claims but committed Great Britain to assisting Arab peoples in the Middle East (use local allies- proxy forces- rather then their own men) 3) The British wanted to encourage a general Arab revolt against the Turks to assist their war effort 4) They hoped to safeguard their hold on the Suez Canal

Answer 10

1) Great Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs in all the regions within the limits demanded by the Sherif of Mecca. 2) Great Britain will guarantee the Holy Places [i.e., Mecca, Medina against all external aggression and will recognise their inviolability 3) When the situation admits, Great Britain will give to the Arabs her advice and will assist them to establish what may appear to be the most suitable forms of government in those various territories. 4) it is understood that the Arabs have decided to seek the advice and guidance of Great Britain only, and that such European advisers and officials as may be required for the formation of a sound form of administration will be British.

Answer 11

- The protection of Holy Place is ambiguous and unclear, does it include Jerusalem? - Another form of colonialism, Great Britain has control over Arab countries futures.

Answer 12

- As the Ottoman Empire fell, the UK and France made a secret pact to carve up their respective spheres of influence in the Middle East - It reflected British and French colonial expansion worldwide.

Answer 13

1) Proclaimed British and French readiness to “recognize” and “protect” independent Arab states, separately or in a confederation - (“protection” signified “control”) 2) Opened up the Middle East as a market for British and French goods, to be imported via ports (Haifa, Basra) and railways (the Baghdad line) 3) Committed both countries to prevent any other power from pursuing strategic interests in the region, on land or at sea | It was unknown at this time that Iraq was rich in oil.

Answer 14

- Restrick German access to the region. - Acknowledged Russian and Italian interests in the region

Answer 15

- An agreement made on November 2, 1917 - It was a a result of Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann negotiating with the British government - Represented a turning point for Zionist aspirations, which became politically relevant in the region

Answer 16

- Key British policymakers debated whether the Balfour Declaration contradict promises made in the McMahon-Husayn agreement, or was consistent with them - Afterward, Husayn himself called upon the Arab population to “welcome the Jews as brethren and cooperate with them”

Answer 17

- Because after the British and Entente advances on the territory, Arabs thought that the British would help them acheive statehood. - Once territory was lost, Arab militiamen joined them under the leadership of T.E. Lawrence (“Lawrence of Arabia”), the British did send them material and weapons

Answer 18

- Woodrow Wilson dreamed of an international organization that would provide collective security and prevent future wars - Reflecting growing US power, he made his“Fourteen Points” address to the US Congress, envisioning self-rule for previously occupied nations - The US helped win WWI

Answer 19

- In his 12th point, he addressed Arab nationalist aspirations: “the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured and undoubted. - Security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development.

Answer 20

-Convened by US Pres. Wilson, the Versailles Conference promoted self-determination worldwide - It determined that European power should govern some former Ottoman territories as a “sacred trust” under the League of Nations, pending independence - Arab states were designated “type A” mandates that would be tutored towards independent statehood

Answer 21

- Various Arab states were left-out - Egyptian Nationalists launched an uprising against UK in 1919, forcing the British to allow an Egyptian delegation to Versailles Conference - Sharif Husayn’s son Amir Faisal, crowned King of Syria in March 1920, traveled to the Versailles Conference to represent the Syrian position

Answer 22

- 1918: Bolsheviks in USSR released secret details of Sykes-Picot agreement - 1917: British Balfour Declaration pledges to assist the foundation of a “Jewish national home” in Palestine - 1919: Faisal compromised with the emergence of Zionism, signs agreement with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann acknowledging Jewish claims to Palestine

Answer 23

- UK, French, and Italian representatives met at San Remo to finalize arrangements of trusteeship in the Middle East - The Mandatory governments were given “full powers of legislation and of administration” - Being a protectorate is different from a colony but it more or less means the same thing.

Answer 24

- The League of Nations awarded the trusteeship of Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq to the British ->It came into operation in 1923 - France received Mandatory powers over Syria and Lebanon, ending King Faisal’s rule over Syria

Answer 25

- It was a war characterized by France's attempt to gain control of Syria following the British's declaration of independent Syria. - The French did end up getting claim of Syria, and Syria wanted to undermine French imperial legitmacy resulting in the formation of the Lebanese state.

Answer 26

- It was limited.

Answer 27

- Egyptians continuously reaffirmed their position that they would not be a British colony. - Despite the British treaty with Egypt ending the British mandate and granting Egypt independence, under the Treaty’s terms the British maintained control over the Suez Canal; military bases on Egyptian territory to “defend” it against “external aggression”; protecting foreign interests (e.g., investments, banking) and local minorities (e.g., Copts, Jews); and the Sudan Note: this did help prevent German military gains in WWII

Answer 28

- Egypt still wasn’t admitted to the League of Nations; nationalist grievances persisted - Never got full independence - Can not fully get out of the grasp of Britain/foreign intervention

Answer 29

- Because of Arab nationalism (indigenous opposition) there was no stable colonial administration in the Middle East leading to a constant struggle to assert dominance. -

Answer 30

- “Colonial states were intelligence states insofar as the entire bureaucratic apparatus of imperial administration in Muslim territories contributed to state surveillance of the subject population” (Martin, p.35)

Answer 31

- Involves espionage - The institutions the colonial state were designed around surveillance - This is a major problem due to lack of consent from the governed - “Protectorates and mandates may not have been colonies properly defined in constitutional terms, but the security service activity within them was assuredly colonial in its fundamental purpose: to solidify imperial rule”

Answer 32

- By 1914, the UK wanted Iraqi oil.

Answer 33

- British captured Baghdad in March 1917 - The British Mandate carved Iraq out of the Ottoman provinces of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra - They imported King Faisal from Arabia, appointed a Sunni monarchy to govern - Kurds in north, Shi’a in south rejected Sunni primacy - British made ultra strategic Kuwait a separate country, angering Iraqis

Answer 34

- Divide by group and conquer - Predisposed inter tension and continuous challenges to the authority of any particular group

Answer 35

- Yes, angered by British control, Iraquis revolted - The revolt was difficult to putdown, they had to relay on aerial bombardment and use of poison gas.

Answer 36

- They would do so in the air - Key manners: 1) Coercive bombardment of recalcitrant tribe 2) Disaffected communities 3) Urban strikers that remained the most salient feature of imperial policing” (Thomas, p.22) - Intelligence networks continue to exert military power.

Answer 37

- “Colonial tax collection, identity checks, military obligation, and police record keeping were tailored to the requirements of the colonial power, not those of the subject population.”

Answer 38

- Colonial budgets were intended to cover the costs of maintaining control over local populations - They were not allocated to improve local peoples’ lives

Answer 39

- Colonial powers developed extensive intelligence networks drawing upon human, signals, and image intelligence - Seemingly innocuous data- demographic, economic, sociological- fed into a grand mechanism of colonial control

Answer 40

1) “British and French colonial threat assessments assumed that political disorders were likely to begin in urban or tribal settings” 2) The colonizers assumed “that the peasant majority in the countryside was easily led into dissent by their own community leaders or, more simply, by a sense of having little to lose.” 3) Colonial intelligence services believed “Muslim subjects were predisposed to religious fanaticism or political extremism” 4) Geographically and ethnically remote areas were harder to subdue

Answer 41

- Fearful of challenges to their rule, colonial officials used “disproportionate force to contain unrest in the short term, which only heightened the likelihood of more widespread dissent in the long term”

Answer 42

- Colonial intelligence services focused most on **“local Communist activists, strike organizers among colonial workers, nationalist groups, and colonial student bodies”** - The French and British also sought to **counter German, and later Soviet infiltration** among colonial populations - Both powers established local police forces or hired **local agents** to control and surveil populations on their behalf, and also brought personnel from other colonies (e.g., British India) to take part - They also **employed local ethnic and religious minorities** (e.g., Assyrians, Circassians) to assist with policing and control

Answer 43

- In some instances independence involved rejecting colonial authority and in other instances it involved keeping close ties to the colonizer at the level of government.

Answer 44

- Written by Geroge Kennan and adopted by the president making it significant - It was implemented by President Harry Truman in 1947

Answer 45

- Involved “containing” the USSR via the “adroit and vigilant application of counter force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points” - Like a game of whack-a- mole, wherever communism pop up the United States would get rid of it - If it resembled communism it was communism - It is a confrontational stance. - Containment is fundamental in international politics.

Answer 46

- It was triggered by the Greek civil war, it featured communist fighting right-wing nationalist threatening capitalist states

Answer 47

- The doctrine called for the US to assume the responsibility of assisting nations struggling to resist communism, lest it spread and cause regional instability. - This solidified the perception of the globe as a chessboard on which pro and anti-communist forces were constantly at war. - Britain, in particular, welcomed this US role.

Answer 48

- Because in Iran the USSR had a chance to project its power and both the USSR and the US invaded it as a result. Here is the overview: 1) Aug 1941: to counter Iranian monarch Reza Shah’s pro-German leanings (world conquest), **the USSR and UK jointly invaded Iran.** 2) Dec 1943: Wishing to thwart Soviet influence, Churchill and Roosevelt **signed the Joint Allied Declaration on Iran**; Stalin agreed to guarantee Iran’s future sovereignty. - Soviets would become foes after WWII - Wanted to avoid Iran becoming a Soviet state 3) The USSR **could not convince Iran to grant access to its oilfields.** - May 1946: Soviets withdraw from Iran

Answer 49

- Despite its great power, “there were clear limits to the risks that the Soviet Union would take in any confrontation with the US” (Sluglett, p.66). - The idea that the Soviets were committed to global conquest and that the US had to stop that was false, the Soviets were more cautious in their foreign policy.

Answer 50

- Oil exporters: Iran (1913); Iraq (1928); Bahrain (1932); Saudi Arabia (1938); Kuwait (1946). - By the mid to late 1940s, US oil companies controlled at least 42% of oil in the region. - In later decades, Alegira, Libya, Qatar, also struck oil - The vast majority of this oil was destined for Western markets. - The USSR was largely self-sufficient and bought minimal amounts of Middle Eastern oil - This hunger for Middle Eastern oil and colonial intervention powered the aforementioned 1953 coup d’etat in Iran

Answer 51

- British government felt insecure about Iranian oil nationalization - This freaked out the British and Americans, if Iran does it other countries are bound to follow suit. - The British needed control of Iranian oil.

Answer 52

- Nationalization did not mean that the Iranian government did not want international companies drilling for oil, they just wanted to make sure that taxes were paid and Iran would be given a larger share of the oil being extracted. - By 1950, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company had in Iran the world’s largest oil refinery, supplying 85% of UK fuel needs. - Iran wanted 50% of profits; the UK was willing to increase Iran’s share from 17% to 24%; the UK ambassador told Mossadegh Iranians were being “greedy”

Answer 53

- He was an "incorruptible" by vast sectors of Iran's population (ruling with Iran's best interest in heart) - He was trusted because of his willingness to oversee oil nationalization.

Answer 54

- It is the national oil company established by Mossadegh that involved the British working for it.

Answer 55

- Mossadegh envisioned the industry running at a low level without foreign management. - The security of the free world is dependent on large quantities of oil from Middle Eastern sources. - If the attitude in Iran spreads to Saudi Arabia or Iraq, the whole structure may break down along with our ability to defend ourselves. - The danger of buying oil produced on a reduced scale has, therefore, potentialities with dangerous repercussions” (Cable to US State Department, 1951)

Answer 56

- The UK was unwilling to accept any compromise short of Mossadegh’s overthrow (Abrahamian) - A UK Foreign Office analysis declared: "In terms of class warfare, the movement led by Musaddiq was a revolutionary drive of the three lower classes against the upper class and the British who were identified with that class” - The British determined they could not allow Mossadegh to nationalize Iran’s oil, and could not dissuade him from doing so; overthrowing him was their only option

Answer 57

- Feb.1952: US and UK intelligence officials discuss possibility of persuading Iranian generals to overthrow Mossadegh but he was too popular. - Jul.1952: Riots in the streets force Shah to safeguard Mossadegh’s position and give him control over the War Ministry - Nov.1952: Eisenhower elected in US; State Sec. J.F. Dulles and CIA Director Allen Dulles have personal stake in law firm representing Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. CIA and British MI6 went to work planning a coup

Answer 58

- The BBC waged a propaganda campaign via its Persian-language broadcast; disinformation spread through Western press to vilify Mossadegh

Answer 59

- British had cultivated a network of informants within Iranian security forces, including key generals, also among journalists and local authorities - CIA organized the kidnapping, torture, and murder of Mossadegh’s police chief, spreading instability and fear within security forces CIA, MI6 spread rumours of secret Mossadegh alliance with USSR

Answer 60

- CIA, MI6 spread rumours of secret Mossadegh alliance with USSR

Answer 61

- After initial setbacks, on August 19, Iranian forces converged on Presidential home and arrested Mossadegh; 300 were killed in skirmishes with loyalists

Answer 62

- The CIA “had a direct role in kidnappings, assassinations, torture, and mass street killings” (Abrahamian, p.187)

Answer 63

- A new consortium of international oil companies was established: 40% of controlling shares went to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company - Mossadegh, key ministers, and thousands of loyalists and Tudeh members were arrested; Mossadegh himself got a light sentence; Tudeh party members were tortured, and some executed

Answer 64

- It was renamed British Petroleum; 14% to its ally Royal Shell (thus giving majority vote to the British) 40% to a group of American firms; and the remaining 6% went to the French state company - The consortium was to give 50% of profits to Iran, but “gained full control over management, refining, production, and distribution of oil” (Abrahamian, p.211)

Answer 65

- The main clash was between communism and capitalism. - It was not a one way street with superpowers transferring their particular preference or ideologies to local people but it included political leanings that existed at the local level which connected or clashed with the superpowers. - In Egypt for example, they may have supported/sided with the Soviets if they did not adopt communist ideologies in government.

Answer 66

- Communist and leftist movements in the Middle East enjoyed early freedom in the early/mid 1940s, but later faced repression. - An egalitarian and benevolent state which would look after its citizens from cradle to grave.

Answer 67

- US policy was initially ambiguous during the decolonization process. - Ideologically, the US offered its vision of modernity: - It would be a disinterested senior partner assisting nations struggling to become members of the ‘free world’ - There to help countries along but were not expecting in return that countries would align themselves with the United States.

Answer 68

- The Cold War focused on state power. - Middle Eastern states gained independence before or during the Cold War. - The Cold War was state-centric, even weaker states had relatively centralized governmental power. - Competing for silent states, Great Powers offered Third World countries economic and military aid, reinforcing governments. - After the Cold War, many states (Syria, Libya, Iraq, Yemen) weakened.

Answer 69

- Third World states joined East Bloc vs West Blic rivalry, bolstering their international trading.

Answer 70

- The role of ideology changed over the course of the Cold War. - Supower relations with Middle Eastern states were complex, not simply imperialist or neo-imperialist. - To some extent, they can be described as Patron/Client relations.

Answer 71

- Clients can switch patrons, or have multiple patrons, and play super powers off of eachother. Example Egypt, Iraq. - Some Middle East states very skillfully played one superpower off against each "other"

Answer 72

- Refers to two or more states trying to outdo each other in military sophistication and size. - The Cold War is renowned for the superpowers’ nuclear arms race. - Yet superpowers also supplied ever more sophisticated weaponry to their client states, especially in the Middle East. - Superpowers and regional rivals competed alike. Wars broke out repeatedly.

Answer 73

- Great powers sold arms to the Middle East in great quantities. - Regional insecurity and chronic conflict led to the emergence of arms races which contributed to further instability.

Answer 74

- Key early arms sales included: Czechslovk sale to Israel 1948, Soviet sale to Syria 1954, Czechslovak sale to Egypt 1955, French sales to Israel 1955-62. - In 1968, the US and USSR began an arms race within the Arab-Israeli conflict. - Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia used oil revenue to make massive weapons purchases.

Answer 75

- The main purpose of the Baghdad Pact was to prevent communist incursions and foster peace in the Middle East. - It was renamed CENTO (Central Treaty Organization)

Answer 76

- 1955: the US promotes the Baghdad PACT (aka Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO). - CENTO members: Iraq, Iran, Turley, the UK and Pakistan - 1958: Revolution in Iraq topples monarchy; secular Arab nationalist Ba’ath government takes over; Iraq withdraws from CENTO in 1959. - CENTO useless; dissolved in 1979.

Answer 77

- The Soviets backed national liberation movements in Syria, Egypt, Iraq that pursued the “non-capitalist road”

Answer 78

- Formed between 1958-61, Egypt and Syria merged allowing for the USSR to get closer to Iraq.

Answer 79

- The 1963 coup overthrew the Iraqi regime leaving thousands of communists and leftists killed which angered Soviets. - In April 9, 1972: Iraq and the Soviet Union sign an historic agreement allowing the USSR to sell Iraq's cutting edge-weaponry and assist Iraq with oil infrastructure.

Answer 80

-Iraq would buy Western goods, including French weapons.

Answer 81

- 1980: Iraq invaded Iran, aiming to seize borderlands; war drags on. - Shaken by Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution, the US sells Iraq modern weapons, including chemical and biological weapons technology. - Meanwhile, the Iranian government cracked down on local communists, rejected the Soviets. - By late 1980s, the USSR and USA supported Iraq and Iran.

Answer 82

- The common understanding of Cold War dynamics is that superpowers controlled client states. - In fact, client states often had more autonomy

Answer 83

- Despite Soviet power and arms sales, Syria often charted an independent path that did not align with Soviet wishes.

Answer 84

- 1970: against Soviet advice- and despite the threat of US intervention- Syria intervened militarily in Joran as fighting broke out between Jordanian governments and Palestinian militants. - Syrian President Assad refused to sign a Friendship and Cooperation Treaty with Moscow, although Egypt (1971) and Iraq (1972) did so.

Answer 85

- The USSR sought to promote the Syrian Communist party, creating tensions with governing Arab Nationalist Ba’ath party - Soviets sought to discourage Syria and Egypt from launching the Oct. 1973 war vs. Israel, but supplied them with much weaponry - The Soviets also tried to pressure Syria into diplomatic negotiations with Israel.

Answer 86

- It involves “informal-sector activities’ such as ‘work’ that is illicit or illicit, that is outside of formal market transactions (Peterson). - They constitute more than one half of all economic output and equal 75% of the gross domestic product of some countries.

Answer 87

- Women do most informal work, but this is largely under-theorized.

Answer 88

- “Structural hierarchies” shape markets based on factors such as class, gender, and other forms of identity.

Answer 89

- Informal-sector activities are especially prevalent in wartime conditions, which overturn typical social and economic mechanisms.

Answer 90

1) Coping Economies 2) Combat economies 3) Criminal economies

Answer 91

- Based on sheer survival needs that motivate individuals and families to facilitate social reproduction.

Answer 92

- Military objectives motivate individuals and groups to fund and facilitate insurgent activities.

Answer 93

- As regulatory mechanisms break down, profit motives generate an economy that is transnational and gendered.

Answer 94

- Women “are held responsible, and typically hold themselves responsible, for family well being and household management,” which often requires participation in the informal economy during poverty or crisis.

Answer 95

1) Communal sharing 2) Petty trade 3) Waged work 4) Redistribution through family networks. 5) Street vending 6) Labour migration 7) Volunteer work 8) Farm labour 9) Remittances 10) Subsistence agriculture 11) Home based business

Answer 96

- There was the Iraq and Iran War - Iraq’s 1990 invasion and annexation of Kuwait - The subsequent UN embargo and first Gulf War against Iraq in 1991 - International sanctions until the second invasion in 2003 “had devastating and long-term effects” - Ultimately, Iraq went “from a relatively prosperous literate and ‘modernizing’ country” under Saddam Hussein’s centralized dictatorship, “Iraq deteriorated dramatically as a result of wars and international sanctions”

Answer 97

- During the 1980-88 Iran-Iraq War “the glorification of a militarised masculinity coincided with the glorification of the Iraqi mother” (Peterson, p.45) - Post-1991, international sanctions impoverished Iraq

Answer 98

- It imposed food scarcity, malnutrition, and disease, adding a “burden of responsibility” for women - International sanctions upended the class- and social orders in Iraq: the black market boomed, the professional class declined, and poverty worsened - Schooling, literacy rates, and infrastructure declined or collapsed, bearing a disproportionate impact on women

Answer 99

- After 2003 invasion, instability and economic insecurity became the norm - Occupying forces failed to protect Iraq’s population and were often themselves implicated in violence

Answer 100

- “Years after the invasion, occupying forces have failed to ensure safe water, adequate electricity and reliable communications” (Peterson, p.47) - Women had to cease participating in the informal economy out of fear - Saddam’s predictable violence replaced by chaos: “Fear of abduction, rape, and murder has kept women confined to their homes” (Peterson, p.47)

Answer 101

- There are key gender dimensions to post-2003 insurgency and criminality - Post-invasion, unemployment remains high for men and women, but men are much more likely to turn to combat activities - “Feminist studies indicate that many men respond to perceptions of ‘failed manhood’

Answer 102

- It is a mindset that is exemplified by unemployment, inability to provide for the household, impotence in the face of occupying forces, and so on – by displaying aggressive behaviors” - This is especially evident in contexts where the state and social order have broken down

Answer 103

- Pre-2003: Women in Iraq enjoyed freedom of movement and faced no systemic threats regarding their mobility - Post 2003: a 'climate of fear'

Answer 104

- Armed groups have targeted women’s organizations and family-planning facilities, and threatened and killed women political leaders and women’s rights activists - Women are the victims of kidnapping, street violence and ‘honour killings’

Answer 105

- Iraqi government and occupying forces **have failed to provide security**; religious conservatism and sectarian violence has grown - **Power** is now increasingly **exercised by local forces** and especially ‘clan leaders, militias, armed groups, religious parties and political strongmen’ who rarely favour the empowerment of women

Answer 106

1) International intervention (1991 sanctions and 2003 invasion) 2) Systemic instability and insecurity in Iraq 3) Gendered economic and social instability and insecurity.

Answer 107

- Attacks on and murders of women leaders send a powerful signal to all women and “eliminate individual women who have much-needed leadership experience and intellectual resources” - The intimidation institutionalizes a return to women’s domesticity and re-inscribes patriarchal ideologies and identities - Younger women who have had fewer educational opportunities may ‘willingly’ submit to subjugation and reduced public-sphere aspirations

Answer 108

- Islam, is widely blamed for gender inequality.

Answer 109

- Oil production affects gender relations by reducing the number of women in the workforce

Answer 110

- It leads to higher fertility rates, less education for girls, and less influence for women in the family - It makes women less likely to mobilize politically, less likely to lobby for expanded rights, less female representation in government - Leads to “atypically patriarchal” government and society

Answer 111

- Workforce participation. - Not all forms of economic growth foster gender equality

Answer 112

- Women’s participation in the workforce also boosts their economic and social power, enables them to share information and organize - This holds true even as women often participate in poorly- remunerated factory jobs, and as they are paid less than men for similar work - When families know that girls will be able to earn their own income they invest in health and education for girls

Answer 113

- It suggests that oil production crowds out other forms of economic activity, harms other sectors, via two mechanisms.

Answer 114

1) Oil sales **increase foreign exchange rate**, boosting value of local currency and increasing demand for foreign-made goods at the expense of local manufacturing 2) Oil wealth **increases “demand for non-tradable goods** (things that cannot be imported, like construction and retail services) drawing labor away from the tradable goods sector and hence raising its production costs

Answer 115

- Since women are largely confined to jobs in export-oriented industries and agriculture, a decline in those sectors will lead to a decline in women’s workforce participation and women’s wages - Meanwhile, men’s wages will grow in the non-traded sectors that favor men’s labour - Oil-rich countries also often import cheap labour, supplanting women in the labour force

Answer 116

- The booming oil markets of the 1970s reduced female labor force participation in countries with high levels of occupational segregation (like Algeria, Angola, Gabon, Nigeria, and Oman), but not in countries with lower segregation (Ross, p.110)

Answer 117

- Nation-building in the Middle East is complicated by incongruence between the state and sub-state and supra-state identities - The idea of the nation state in the Middle East had little historical tradition on which to build.

Answer 118

- The strongest identifications are often sub-state units (e.g. cities, tribes, religious sects) or the larger Islamic umma

Answer 119

- Identity both shaped perceptions of interest in foreign policy making and is an instrument in their pursuit.

Answer 120

- Supra-state 'imagined community’ makes inter-Arab politics distinctive: competition among states for Pan-Arab leadership (e.g., Egypt, Iraq)

Answer 121

- Anderson depicts a nation as a socially-constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of a group.

Answer 122

- Pan-Arab identity and state-centric nationalism

Answer 123

- Construction of Arab nationalism was secular in multi-religious states, with stronger Islamic content in religiously homogenous states

Answer 124

- Arab nationalism and Islamism were rivals with shared causes and overlap

Answer 125

- Pan-Arab nationalism was the hegemonic ideology from 1950s to 1970s - The Arab world as an “imagined community” (Noble 1991,p.56) - Since the height of pan-Arabism, identification with the state and Islam have started to exceed Arab identity

Answer 126

- Arab Nationalist ideology can be traced back to Ottoman Empire, Arab Uprising of 1916-17, anti-colonial thought of 1920s - As Arab states gained full independence, Arab nationalism fused with state- centric nationalism - Creation of Israel in 1948 drew combined military response from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine, plus smaller contributions from Saudi Arabia, Sudan

Answer 127

- It contributed to sense of Arab unity, **it provided collective focal point for Arab states** - “That Arab opposition to Israel has remained so enduring despite its high costs is hard to explain without the identity factor” (Hinnebusch, p.165)

Answer 128

- Nasser, president that proceeded King Farouk of Egypt.

Answer 129

- He promoted pan-Arab ideology, a secular Arab nationalism that was very influential through the Middle East - He viewed Arab monarchies with ties to the West such as Jordan, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf countries, Iraq, Morocco, as ideological adversaries

Answer 130

- July 26 1956: Nasser announces decision to nationalize Suez Canal, owned and operated by UK-French consortium and blocks Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping - France also resents Egyptian support for rebels in Algerian War

Answer 131

- The UK, France and Israel secretly plan to attack Egypt - Oct. 29- Nov.7 1956: French and British forces seize the Canal Zone, attack Egyptian targets; Israeli forces capture Sinai Peninsula

Answer 132

- Soviet Premier Khrushchev is furious about invasion; uproar at UN - Fearing confrontation with USSR, Eisenhower administration forces French (British, Israelis to withdraw by Jan. 1957)

Answer 133

- Nasser emerges as a hero across the Arab world for resisting Western powers and Israel - Nasser’s pan-Arab ideology resonates powerfully, inspires Arab nationalist seizures of power in Iraq (1958) and Libya (1969)

Answer 134

- Declared jointly by Egypt’s President Nasser and Syria’s President Shukri al-Quwatli - Nasser and al-Kuwatly pray together before creating UAR (top) - And then sign the formal agreement (bottom)

Answer 135

- Cairo becomes the capital and Nasser the president; Egypt and Syria become provinces - The National Assembly is formed with half the delegates taken from each country.

Answer 136

- Nasser appoints Egyptians to govern Syria; many Syrians resent the union as a power grab by Egypt to control Syrian resources. - 28/9/1961: Syrian army officers overthrow the United Arab Republic government and with draw from union

Answer 137

- Syrian Christian born to a middle-class family - Initially a communist, Aflaq founded the Arab Ba’ath Movement, later the Arab Ba’ath Party

Answer 138

- “Ba’ath”: rebirth, renaissance

Answer 139

- Aflaq involved in Syrian politics; fled Syria after the 1966 coup, emerges in 1968 as Iraqi Ba’ath Party leader

Answer 140

- Ideology revolved around Arab unification as a vehicle for development and strength - Ba’athism strongly influenced by socialist ideals of economic redistribution; separation religion and state, rallying around secular Arab identity

Answer 141

- The Quran and Sunna (body of Islamic traditional, social, and legal custom) refer to concepts such as nations, power, political authority, and treaty- making

Answer 142

- It is often claimed that Islam makes no distinction between religion and politics, but evidence throughout Islamic history of differentiation between religious authority and political power

Answer 143

- Islam emerged as a focal point of anti-colonial agitation by the late 19th century. However, nationalism proved to be a more effective discourse - In popular discourse, political mobilization of umma serves symbolic function towards unity among Muslims

Answer 144

- Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan): founded in Egypt in 1928, prototype for many modern Islamist movements - Ideology whereby Islam pervades all aspects of life

Answer 145

- Iran is the only Islamic state where a religious scholar controls government functions (Theocracy)

Answer 146

- “Islamic Revival” often dated to post-June 1967 Arab-Israeli War, but cultural resonance and language of religion has always been present

Answer 147

- Islamist social/political movements are not the only actors: States intervene in religious field and deploy religious institutions for own goals

Answer 148

- Liberalization created a political environment conducive to growth of Islamism into the vacuum of state retreat

Answer 149

- The Muslim Brotherhood filled this vacuum left by the state by providing health and educational services

Answer 150

- Cold War geopolitics gave more prominent role to Islam - Iran’s Islamic Revolution (1979) - Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Answer 151

- Example: Saudi religious outreach was welcomed by the US as check against communism, coordinated with Pakistan

Answer 152

- It implemented direct clerical rule. - Internationally, it symbolized removal of a secular regime by Islamic forces, had a broader “Third World-ist” appeal

Answer 153

- Financial and military support for mujahideen (“holy warriors”) from the West and Middle Eastern states. - Victory of Afghan resistance seen as evidence that superpowers can be subdued under the banner of Islam

Answer 154

- Increase in extent and range of Muslim transnationalism - The “Muslim Public Sphere” has expanded through information and communications technology Islamist groups use globalization to expand international political influence

Answer 155

Who? - Its military apparatus is the strongest non-state armed actor in the world; it also has representation in Lebanon’s parliament - It has fought mini-wars vs. Israel in 1992, 1996, and 2006, gaining strength each time, and has clashed with Israeli forces throughout that period What? - Hezbollah is a hybrid of militia, political party, and social services and public works provider (Norton 2009) Why? - A Shi’a group in Lebanon founded in 1982 to resist Israel’s invasion of Lebanon; subservient to Iran - In the Islamic Revolution of 1979 that overthrew the Western-backed Shah, Shi’a clerics drew inspiration from **key Shi’a figure Imam Hussein**, grandson of the Prophet Mohammed - In 7th century, Hussein refused to submit to Ummayad Caliph Yazid’s authority, and was killed in battle at Karbala (an event known as ‘Ashura) - The Iranian clerics interpreted Imam Hussein’s example as a form of liberation theology and exported message to Lebanon How? - 2006: Its regional popularity peaked with its strong performance vs. Israeli military in war that summer 2011-present: Popularity complicated by intervening in Syria’s civil war on Assad regime’s behalf

Answer 156

- In addition to its military might, Hezbollah has become a major force in Lebanese politics - Its coalition won a 71-seat majority in 2018 - The coalition lost its majority in 2022 elections

Answer 157

- In Lebanon, embattled Shi’a community of Southern Lebanon has coalesced around religious-political ideology to mobilize militarily vis-à-vis external threats: Israel and rival Lebanese factions - Lebanese Shi’a community long predates that in Iran - Ashura holy day slogan in Nabatiyya, Lebanon: “Every day is Ashura and every land, Karbala” - Sanctity of holy day interpreted through lens of modern martyrs, current enemies - Commemorations of deadly 1983 ‘Ashura clash with Israeli troops; deadly 1996 Israeli shelling of Qana village

Answer 158

- It is necessary to find a middle way between explaining all Muslim behavior in relation to Islam and viewing Islam as a rhetorical instrument - IR theory has traditionally struggled to take culture, religion, and identity into account (e.g. realism; constructivism) - Need to understand how languages, symbols, and values associated with Islam are linked to representation and deliberation of political issues - Institutional identity: Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Islamic Red Crescent Society, Islamic Development Bank, etc

Answer 159

- The Persian Gulf constitutes a regional subsystem within the international state system Subsystems have their own greater and lesser powers and alliance patterns

Answer 160

- Before that time, these states had limited abilities to project power and influence beyond their borders, but afterwards, Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia had vastly increased their military and economic power - Their foreign policies became much more ambitious

Answer 161

1) British withdrawal 2) Rise in oil prices

Answer 162

- Oman, Kuwait, and Trucial States (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, Umm al-Qiwain, Ajman and Fujairah, and from 1931, also Bahrain)

Answer 163

- The balance of power theory holds that states will seek to match perceived threats from rival states by increasing their military and economic strength and by forming alliances - They will try to block any state that pursues an aggressive foreign policy or seeks to disrupt existing equilibrium - Balancing Requires states to commit to matching an opponent’s strength

Answer 164

- In Gulf region, Realist and balance of power approaches provide a necessary but not sufficient framework -> domestic issues also need to be considered - Regime security and traditional security concerns both contribute to determining foreign policy choices

Answer 165

1) Iraq launched wars in 1980 and 1990: - Decisions driven by ambition to cement status as major regional power, but also by fear about prospects for regime security 2) 1979: After Saddam’s rise to power, Iraqi Shi’a groups call for government’s overthrow; Iran calls for exporting Islamic Revolution 3) Iran-Iraq War (1980-88): - Saddam Hussein chose war: domestic unrest in Iraq seen as orchestrated by Tehran in the wake of the Iranian revolution (1979) 4) The Gulf War (1990-91): - Saddam Hussein’s regime saw an international conspiracy against it, meant to weaken Iraq internationally and destabilize the regime domestically Rising Kuwaiti and Emirati oil exports, and US-Israeli plans to strike Iraqi WMD targets

Answer 166

- Saudi maneuvering in 1980s was dictated more by Iran’s ideological threat than balance of power concerns Differing reactions to the First and Second Gulf wars reflect threat levels and public opinion reactions - Saudi took the side of Iraq, as it worries about Saddam's intentions fearing Iranian revolutionary rhetroic and Shi'a unrest in the Gulf - Gulf War led to Saudi switching sides: the Iraqi threat on both balance of power and regime security levels led to a Saudi military alliance with the US - The Iraq War resulted in Saudi being less willing to cooperate with the US because Iraq was less of a threat and because of anti-American public attitudes.

Answer 167

- The Gulf has been strategically significant to the US since end of WWII due to oil resources and the US foreignly intervened

Answer 168

1) Until 1971, the US developed close relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia 2) 1970s: - Twin-Pillar strategy: backing Iran and Saudi Arabia in Cold War context 3) 1973-4 oil revolution: - Saudi Arabia cut oil sales to US in response to US support for Israel in 1973 Arab-Israeli war - Oil prices quadrupled, causing recession 4) Intensification of military, economic, and political relations between the US and its Gulf partners 5) After the Iranian Revolution, US reaffirmed its commitment to Saudi Arabia and committed more military resources to the Gulfànaval deployments and open security alliances

Answer 169

1) United States policy of Dual Containment in 1990s against Iraq and Iran 2) 9/11 marked an important turning point: - Bush administration set of changing the Gulf status quo 3) Iraq War: - US launched 2003 war on contention that Iraq had large stockpiles of WMDs - The US failed to build a stable successor regime, which they had hoped would be a strategic asset 4) Iranian nuclear issue: - US suspected Iran of developing nuclear weapons and had links to groups it identified as terrorist - US sought to mobilize international support for sanctions aimed at curbing Iran’s nuclear program

Answer 170

- Until the Gulf War, US role was important but reactive, the agenda was set by regional states - Regional states’ foreign policies driven by domestic regime security concerns in addition to balance of power consideration - Greater willingness of Gulf monarchies to associate with US military after 1990-1991 - 9/11 marked escalation of US regional involvement - US withdrawal from Iraq: Local powers retake center stage as drivers of Gulf international politics

Answer 171

Iran: - After 1979, Iran lacked a superpower backer, a reliable source of arms, and dependable allies Iran’s new regime still managed to consolidate domestic political power and mobilize society For Iran’s elites, “This was not an interstate conflict fought for territorial adjustment or limited political objectives,” but a contest of ideologies(Takeyh, p.365) Iraq: - The war became an extension of the 1979 Islamic Revolution: ideological fervor against Iraq’s technological superiority

Answer 172

- The Algiers Agreement

Answer 173

- Iraq agrees to Iranian definition of border Iran agrees to stop supporting Kurdish insurgency in Iraq

Answer 174

- Prior to war’s outbreak, there had been multiple border skirmishes sustained Iranian propaganda again Saddam - In addition to his fears of domestic unrest, Saddam coveted Iran’s oil-rich, ethically-Arab Khuzestan province

Answer 175

- 1980: “We see this war as an American war. Thus, it is natural for Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and others to support Iraq” (Speaker of the parliament Hashemi Rafsanjani) - Iran demonized Gulf Sheikhdoms, Western European states for supporting Iraq - Saddam Hussein saw the war as an opportunity to establish Iraq as the leader of the Arab world - Both sides rejected efforts at mediation, cease-fire, compromise, by UN, Palestine Liberation Organization, others

Answer 176

1984: First recorded use of chemical weapons by Iraq 1985: “War of the cities”: Each side targets the others’ population centers with surface-to- surface missiles Feb. 1986: Iraq bombs Iranian oil-loading ports Aug. 1986: Iran seizes Iraq’s ultra-strategic al-Faw Peninsula and western bank of Shatt al-Arab river April 1988: Iraq launches massive attack to re- take al-Faw Aug. 1988: Both sides agree to implement cease- fire Final death toll estimated to exceed 1 million

Answer 177

- Misperception by key decision makers often explains failed offensives in 1980, Saddam Hussein made some key miscalculations: - He expected Iranians in border areas to rise up against - Islamic Republic (they didn’t) - He expected his military to smash through Iranian defenses and quickly win (they didn’t) - He thought the new Iranian government would lack resolve when faced with Iraqi army’s might (they didn’t)

Answer 178

- Ayatollah Khomeini: “You are fighting to protect Islam and he [Saddam Husayn] is fighting to destroy it” Saddam’s secular regime was portrayed as an infidel invader - Iranian leadership had “maximalist aim” of defeating Iraq and overthrowing Ba’athist government - Martyrdom and collective sacrifice were portrayed as means towards victory and spiritual elevation of Iranian body-politic - This culminated in the use of human-wave tactics for attacking Iraqi positions, clearing minefields

Answer 179

- March 1982: Losing, Saddam suggests both sides withdraw to pre-war borders - By June 1982, Iran had expelled Iraqi forces from its territory - “During that time in Iran no one was prepared to accept a cease-fire. At that time we convened a meeting regarding the direction of the war, and the Imam commanded that no one should speak of a cease-fire and that the war must achieve its goals” –Rafsanjani - Iran’s leadership thought they could win a swift victory: - They wanted to overthrow Saddam; and they saw the war as a unifying principle for their new regime - “The goal of exporting the revolution through continuation of the war became a consensus position within the Islamic Republic” (Takeyh, p.371)

Answer 180

- The loss of the Vietnam War badly shook US military confidence, tarnished America's global superpower image.

Answer 181

- US decisionmakers wary of becoming bogged down in another unwinnable war.

Answer 182

- In addition to sentiments surroudning the Vietnam War and the Cold War, there was/is a widespread perception that the US domestic population had no appetite for further wars.

Answer 183

- The pro-US leaning Iranian leader Shah did not survive the revolution, and because the US misperceived Prime Minister Mossadegh's abiality to get into power did not evacuate the Tehran embassy.

Answer 184

- Radical students under Khomeini (first supreme leaders of Iran) stormed the US embassy and took 52 hosatges. | Nov 4, 1979

Answer 185

- No they failed to secure hostages' release.

Answer 186

- An operation lauched by US Pres Carter to rescue hostages - It was not successful, as it had to be aborted due to mechanical failures which grounded US helicopters resulting in 8 people dead.

Answer 187

- For the US public, this incident further symbolized US loss of stature and capacity - Carter's popularity plunged

Answer 188

- 20 Jan. 1981: Iran releases hostages the day after Reagan is sworn in - Unproven allegations by NSC member that Reagan colluded with Iran to delay release

Answer 189

- Israel invades Lebanon to expel Palestine Liberation Organization - US Pres. Reagan considers deploying Marines as part of multinational force to escort PLO out of Beirut, **restore order in Lebanon ** | June 1982

Answer 190

- Reagan deploys 800 Marines, who join French and Italian troops as part of multinational force | Aug 25, 2982

Answer 191

- Marines’ contingent grows to 1,200; by April 1983, gets sucked into violence of Lebanese civil war - US ships shell strongholds in Shouf mountains, killing civilians

Answer 192

- US public opinion would not support escalation, but withdrawal would harm US credibility, as a result forces stay put

Answer 193

- Islamic Johad suicide bombers

Answer 194

- 63 people were killed including 17 Americans - CIA Near East chief Robert Ames, and other key CIA operatives among the dead.

Answer 195

- Militiamen from Iranian-supported Islamic Jihad (precursor to Hezbollah) drive a truck bomb into US Marine compound in Beirut, killing 241, wounding more than 100 | 23 Oct. 1983

Answer 196

- Reagan orders US Navy jets to bomb town of Baalbek, Islamic Jihad’s HQ

Answer 197

- No, on Dec 4 two US jets are downed by Syrian missiles in Lebanon.

Answer 198

- Despite pessure mounting on Reagan to withdraw before more US personnel are killed or US gets drawn into a wider war, he stated that premature withdrawal would damage the United States international credability and that it was the US (and others) role to help the free world defend itself.

Answer 199

- Yes in Feb 1983, marines withdraw from Beirut.

Answer 200

- November 1984: US Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger tells National Press Club that all future military deployments must be guided by: 1) Clearly defined political and military objectives 2) A willingness to commit the forces and resources necessary to meet those objectives 3) ”Some reasonable assurance we will have the support of the American people”

Answer 201

- Qaddafi sponsored attacks on Western targets by various militant groups

Answer 202

- March 1986: Reagan orders US Sixth Fleet into Gulf of Sidra, where Qaddafi had declared a “Zone of Death” in which Libya would attack US traffic - US air attacks destroy Libyan boats, surface-to-air missile launchers

Answer 203

- Qaddafi vows to “expand the struggle” against the US “all over the world”; Libyan agents are connected to bomb attacks on TWA airliner and West Berlin discotheque

Answer 204

- Operation El Dorado Canyon

Answer 205

- April 1986: US responds with aerial bombing of Libyan air force and Qaddafi’s residence, killing dozens - Def. Sec. Weinberger: Libya raid was “all the vindication that anyone should need of our correctness in rebuilding our military strength and deciding when to use it”

Answer 206

- 1984-86: Iran’s Khomeini launches “Tanker War” to impact Western nations supporting Iraq - Mines, torpedoes damage 67 oil tankers in Persian Gulf

Answer 207

1) Kuwait requests to sail oil tankers under US flag 2) US Navy starts escorting tankers through Gulf 3) Iraqi missile hits US Navy ship, killing 37

Answer 208

- Reagan admin warned that withdrawal would embolden Iran and leave a vacuum Soviets would fill

Answer 209

- April 1988: After US Navy ship hits mine, US launches “Operation Praying Mantis” - Striking Iranian boats, oil rigs, missile batteries

Answer 210

- June 1988: US ship downs Iran Air Flight 655, killing all 290 aboard - July 1988: Khomeini accepts UN-backed cease fire

Answer 211

1) Cold War: - Containing the Soviet threat 2) Post Cold War moment: - In Middle East, US power appeared unrivalled - Strategic interests: oil and allies 3) Bush Doctrine: - Using 9/11 to legitimize projecting US military power 4) Contestation of US power in the world: rise of the BRICS countries and losing the peace in Iraq 5) Has the US unipolar moment passed?

Answer 212

- De Facto: In reality, in practice, in face - De Jure: According to law

Answer 213

- Most states in developing world have both kind of statehood

Answer 214

- In developing world, many de jure states have internationally recognized borders, a seat at the UN, a flag, currency, etc., but are still chronically weak

Answer 215

- Some de facto states lack international recognition but still function as organized, politically centralized polities (e.g., Somaliland, Western Sahara, Palestine, Kurdistan)

Answer 216

- Kurds- an ethno-linguistic group encompassing Muslims, Christians, Yazidis, and Jews, with important minority populations in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran - Kurdistan is a geo-cultural region, not a state

Answer 217

- Some Kurdish nationalist groups want an independent Kurdish state comprising Kurdish-majority areas of several states - Others want regional autonomy within existing borders

Answer 218

- Kurds sent a delegation to the Versailles Conference in 1919

Answer 219

- Western powers planned to grant Kurds autonomy, but this was thwarted by 1919-23 Turkish War of Independence

Answer 220

- Kurds in northern Iran declared Republic of Mahabad (Jan-Dec 1946)

Answer 221

- Kurdish autonomous region was recognized by the Iraqi state in 1970; reaffirmed in 2005 Iraqi constitution - 1987-88: Saddam Hussein launched brutal military campaign, al-Anfal (“spoils of war”) to crush Kurds in northern Iraq; killed thousands of Kurdish civilians with nerve gas at Halabja - In mid-1990s, rival Kurdish factions in Iraq also fought a civil war, killing 5000

Answer 222

- Turkey has refused to acknowledge Kurdish identity and autonomy, banning Kurdish language and symbols - Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK) fought guerilla war vs. Turkey in 1980s and 1990s in which 40,000 were killed

Answer 223

- He is a leader and symbol of Kurd independence. - Founding member of PKK - Led guerrilla campaign vs Turkey

Answer 224

- Escaped death sentence, imprisoned since then - Renounced armed struggle vs. Turkey in favor of diplomacy - Regarded as hero and leader by Kurds in Turkey and beyond

Answer 225

-2014-2018: Kurdish fighters in western Syria held off ISIS while Syrian troops withdrew to fight elsewhere - With backing of US airstrikes, they defeated ISIS

Answer 226

- Kurdish militia – the Peshmerga (“those who face death”) – a disciplined, skilled fighting force

Answer 227

- Syrian Kurds (10% of pop.)- have declared autonomous state of Rojava, or Western Kurdistan, under Democratic Union Party (PYD) - PYD leaders declare they will not go back to being governed by Syria

Answer 228

- Turkey regards Kurdish autonomy as threat, sent tanks into Syria to challenge Kurds even as ISIS lurked - Sept. 2016: Turkey deploys ground forces to northern Syria vs. ISIS, Kurds

Answer 229

- Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga and Syrian Kurdish YPG militia both deploy women’s combat units - They have distinguished themselves in combat vs. ISIS

Answer 230

- They embody the shared Kurdish national vision of a secular polity which safeguards women’s rights

Answer 231

- At one point or another since 1940s, the US, Israel, USSR, and Iran have all backed Kurdish militant groups - Their effectiveness vs. ISIS and cohesion as political entities in Syria and Iraq have shaped other actors’ foreign policies

Answer 232

- The increasingly weak “state of the Middle Eastern state” post-Cold War, post- 9/11 has left an opening for stateless actors - Independent Kurdistan still elusive.

Answer 233

- Jan. 2019: Trump’s abrupt decision to withdraw US forces from Syria while conversing with Turkey’s Erdogan terrifies Kurds

Answer 234

- The 9/11 attack

Answer 235

- Militarized foreign policy response - Multifacted period in global history - Response by primarily the United States and its allies

Answer 236

- The venues and participants have constantly shifted. - Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, ALgeria, Syria, Philippines and other places have been subject to United States intervention.

Answer 237

- The United States responded anywhere there was terror activities, for example their government got involved in terroist activies, the soil was a venue or combination.

Answer 238

- Mostly the various branches of Al-Qaeda, the Taliban, ISIS, al-Shabaab, and others. - Al-Qaeda has branches around the world

Answer 239

- The United Kingdom has been the main supporter, however, dozens of other countries have supplied troops, bases, prisons, and other support. - Canada, refused to send troops to Iraq

Answer 240

- Emerged while fighting the Soviets occupations of Afghanistan (Mujahideen) , it then became a global netwrok targeting Westerners -Jihadist groups have killed more muslims, than any other religious group

Answer 241

- Rely heavily on funding from Saudi donors (spread islam) - Also funded by the United States and Pakistan during the Cold War (damage the Soviet power)

Answer 242

- In the 1990s, it found sancturary in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, and planned the 9/11 attacks from there. - The Soviet Union collasped so there was no central government.

Answer 243

- Subscribes to Salafist ideology, itself of Saudi origin, rejecting human laws and advocating violent jihad (holy war) as sacred duty: condones killing civilians.

Answer 244

- They use messagingk ranging from sermons to slick recruitment videos which promoted martyrdom as the highest ideal.

Answer 245

- Based on false premises, and the US really wanted to invade (was going to do it with or without permission) - At 2002 the UN general assembly Bush offered three reasons: 1) Iraqui weapons of mass destruction (WMDs): note they were actively seeking for proof 2) Human rights violations, torture, summary executions. 3) Support for transnational terror groups: Iraq had not relation to al-Qaeda

Answer 246

- The profile was not specific, many Middle Eastern states such as Syria and Israel fit the profile. - The United States, like other Western powers had previously ignored the human rights and chemical weapon abuses of Saddam Hussein,moreover they helped Saddam gain WMD. - Iraq's action were not "the single source of serious concern" - Access to oil was not a compelling reason either: while a precedent not a reason.

Answer 247

- As a continuation of Anglo-American imperial designs in the Middle East, 21st century imperalism | Gregory

Answer 248

- Because it would not contained new threats from terroists actors and rogue states. - Accumulating weaponds and launching attacks once invoked was regarded as suicidal.

Answer 249

- They laid out a doctrine of "pre-emptive self-defense" which involved targetting emerging threats before they fully formed - You were an enemy if you had a reasonable idea that they could attack you. - Reaffirmed the American's miliatry strength

Answer 250

- No, international agencies and the United Nations confirmed that Iraq was complying with inspections of facilities - Occupying US troops never found substantial stores of WMD anywhere.

Answer 251

- Within US government agencies, analysts skeptical about war were marginalized. - State Sec, Colin Powell who presented the UN with sketchy evidence of Iraqui WMD later regretted it.

Answer 252

- It was a "special relationship" - Together they promoted Iraqui WMD deception, and supported ignorant of information - UK PM Tony Blair commits to following the US lead against Iraq.

Answer 253

- The Chief of Staff Jonathan Powell stated that lawyers did not see a legal basis for invaiding Iraq despite Saddam being a ruthless dictator who was surpressing peoples.

Answer 254

- No despite the CIA's adimitacy there was no link found - Although it involved terroism it was not linked to jihadist groups, Iraq had long supported other violent non-state groups in the Middle East but never al-Qaeda.

Answer 255

- Saddam Hussein's regime was secular; it had arrested and killed countless clerics for opposing it. - al-Qaeda was driven by an extremist interpretation of Sunni Islam; its adherents were typically devout.

Answer 256

- It prepared the ground for American public to accept furture miliatry interventions with equanimity. - Made the invasion consiciously sound. - Framing: "imagine a september 11 with weapons of mass destruction"

Answer 257

- In March 2003, before the invasion polls showed that 75% of Americans believed Saddam Hussein was linked to 9/11 attacks

Answer 258

- Because the US thought if they invaded Iraq and made it a democracy, other countries would be encouraged to do so and the Middle East would be at peace because democracies do not fight eachother

Answer 259

- They are wars in the global south of lower relative importance of Major Powers - They are a continuationof 'low-intensity conflict' and counterinsurgency during Cold War. - These wars are not fought conventionally, do not have standing armies non-state actors are involved.

Answer 260

- Post 9/11 the main existential threat to the western powers now emananted from what were the small wars to the south - Loosely-organized but growing Islamist miliatnt network could not inflict "grevious harm" on the west (New York city is the front line)

Answer 261

- The Global south had moved from periphery to center stage - Western illusions, primarility about ourselves and our past and present role in the world, that deny us and our leaders the clarity of vision necessary to understand this conflict.

Answer 262

- Europe did not become super peaceful after - It is claimed that they shape international systems but the borders, treaties and securalism they proclaim is often not respected.

Answer 263

- The imperial state, the empire and, latterly, the international blocs of the Cold War" had a far greater impact. - By the late victorian era, "the inequality of nations was as profound as the inequality of classes. Humanity had been irrevocably divided. - Post-Cold War, the struggle between the "strong and the weak," between North and South, has regained primacy.

Answer 264

- They should be understood as mounting a "hybrid form of anti-colonial resistance" rooted in long history (not an emergent vaccum) - Terroism is the weapon of the weak against the strong. - Al-Qaeda disregards borders drawn and leaders back by the West. - Its message resonates internationally, drawing recurits to its cause. - The West should be seeking ot fuel the opposite dynamic, disarticulating local and global struggles.

Answer 265

- Policymakers invoked the Democratic Peace Theorem to justify Iraq invasion and despite Stanford U scholar Larry Diamond dradting a new Iraqi consitution, democracy was unsuccessful because it was mismanaged.

Answer 266

- It was widely hailed as a breakthrough in the Arab world, a vindication of US invasion - Despite this, violence against US occupation continued and the division between Sunni and Shi'a strengthened because of political parties. - Unprecendented persecution of Christians, women

Answer 267

- Because the errors of implementation were inscribed in the nature of the project and its authors from the onset (Beetham 2009) - The kind of leaders who would have implemented Iraq experts'advice instead of marginalizing them are the kind who never would have ordered the invasion in the first place

Answer 268

- In 2014, chronic Iraqui state weakness underscored by ISIS's swift defeat of numerically superior Iraqui forces. - Absence of forces loyal to central government and state

Answer 269

- It accelerated Middle Eastern state weakness and fragmentation - Rise in importance of non-state militants - For US, War on Terror surpasses major interstate strategic rivalries

Answer 270

- It refocused IR on people and the way political issues can resonate from one domestic level in one country to another domestic level through bypassing the government.

Answer 271

- Protests against the patriarchqal and monarch leaders (aka similar to Justin and Pierre-Elliott Trudeau)

Answer 272

1) Globalization: social media, satelite tv (unregulated by the government) 2) Disparity within Arab countries between political power and economic wealth. 3) Civic activism: protesters had been active for a very long time but bottled up through social media etc 4) Post-Cold War moment: decline of strong states which feature dictatorships (well entrenched insitituions faced challenges).

Answer 273

1) The end of the 'over-stated Arab state' 2) Power vacumms: as the mighty states lost grip on power (Soviet Union), resource flow ended 3) Occupation of vacant spaces of power: create spaces that people could step into and assert thier power. 4) Society advance

Answer 274

1) Power vaccum (libya and Yemen) 2) Protracted contests over value allocation (Bahrain) 3) Idenity politics (Iraq, Yemen, Syria, Bahrain) 4) Power and resource distribution (Kuwait, Libya, Yemen) 5) Civil and unruly modes of engagement (Egypt, Yemen) 6) Patronage and client politics (gulf states) 7) Consolidation of legitimate polities (Tunisia)

Answer 275

- The would-be middle class (those who are middle class in their culture and education but mostly excluded from it) along the fault of the younger generation (civil society, driving force of the Arab Spring, not enough economic growth) - Demonstration effect: uprisings in Tunisia quickly spread to Egypt and elsewhere, with modern media spreading images and messages (people see something happening, and take up the same cause, globalization, pan-arabism by Nasser)

Answer 276

1) 2008-9, widespread economic hardship and dissatisfaction across Middle East 2) 4 Dec.2010: Tunisian fruit vendor Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire after a city inspector confiscated his wares 3) Following his death on 4 Jan. 2011, protests spread 4) Activits, unionists, students, lawyers, professors, at the forefront

Answer 277

1) 14 Jan.2011: President Ben-Ali flees to exile in Saudi Arabia 2) Secret police, ruling party are dissolved, politicla prisoners are released (historical power structures are gone) 3) Oct.2011: Constituent Assembly elected ( initial step towards democratization) 4) 2013: Constitution adopted 5) Oct.2014: Parliament elected Tunisia becomes a parliamentary republic.

Answer 278

- An Islamic party modeled on Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood, but milder - Won a 37% plurality of the popular vite in Oct.2011 - Faced popular uproar over "Islamicization" and two 2013 political assassinations by Islamists (this is a sensitive moment in the midst of democratization, scares the body politic) - Stepped down from power in Jan.2014 - Won 27.9% of parliamentary vote but did not field candidate in Nov.2014 presidential election (Essebsi was sworn in)

Answer 279

- Because he was old and a moderate voice. - Being old was seen as a way of making sure that he would not try to hold power (it worked he died in 2019)

Answer 280

- The security forces' decisions not to crush the Egyptian and Tunisian revolts were decisive - Security forces elsewhere (Iran, Syria, Bahrain, Libya) responded more aggressively

Answer 281

- Tunisian and Egyptian protestors had "no leadership, no hierachy, no unifying ideology" which resulted in a newfound importance of individual dignity. - Movements were non-violent but whether it translated into lasting gains remains in question.

Answer 282

1) Due to the oil boom there was European competition for sales of consumer goods and arms 2) Surplus oil meant that oil funds flowed to international banking. 3) UK made massive weapon sales to the region, France being the third biggest arms supplier (after the US and UK) to the Arab Gulf states

Answer 283

- Proposed by Eisenhower, the MIC suggests that as arms manufacturing grows it distorts domestic and foreign policy. - Because economies depend on the manufacturing and selling of arms they unnecessarily purchase arms which is exacerbated by elites greed in terms of profit from arms sales

Answer 284

- No rather liberalism does as it accounts for the role economic actors play in advising decisions and policy making

Answer 285

- Rational choice theory - Powerful interest groups shape policy in a disproportionately powerful manner, shaping policy outcomes | Olson's Logic of Collective Action

Answer 286

- It argues that economic and political elites shape state policy for their own financial interests which is an important source of foreign policy decision making.

Answer 287

1) It was a series of arms deals between the UK and Saudi Arabia in 1985 -2006 2) In exchange for modern weaponary, Saudi Arabia gave the UK 600,000 barrels of oil a day cementing UKs steady access to cheap oil 3) It made the UK as of 2003, 43 billion pounds and an potential additional 40 billion more 4) It was the biggest sale of anything to anyone 5) It was corrupt, parliament wished to know in what ways but a corruption investigation was cancelled by PM Blair

Answer 288

- The kidnapping and murder of Washington Post journalist Khashoggi

Answer 289

- Because the CIA revealed that the Saudi Prince Mohammed bin Salman ordered the murder but Donald Trump discredited it in order to secure the overexagerrated $110 billion arms sale to Saudis as reason to keep quiet - He was not going to destroy the world economy and that of the United States by being foolish with Saudi Arabia - Biden tried to settle it but was advised to let it go

Answer 290

1) 1995: Euro-Mediterranean Partnership to promote integration into EU trade networks 2) 1990s-2000s: EU members seek agreements with Iran to limit its nuclear program (no nuclear weapons and not doing so militarily) 3) 2002: EU-Iran trade talks contrast with Bush's "Axis of Evil" (Iraq, Iran, North Korea), and Iranian Pres. Khatami visits European capital thereofre engaging in trade talks rather than vilifying it 4) 2016: UK, France, Germany sign Obama's deal to lift economic sanctions on Iran in exchange for halt to its nuclear program (US signing the Joint Comprehensive Agreement made the deal work)

Answer 291

- The Arab Springs spread to Libya and the individualized Qaddafi dictatorship responded with force such as bombing and shooting civilians protesting

Answer 292

- In March 2011, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 which called for an immediate cease-fire and imposed a no-fly zone

Answer 293

- Unlike the United States who had done enough bombing in the Middle East France in support of the UN's resolution led NATO air strikes enforcing the no-fly zone and targetting Qaddafi militrary bases (Operation Harmattan)

Answer 294

- In October 2011, local rebels toppled Qaddafi, found him and killed him leaving Libya in a failed state without a leader (power vaccum)

Answer 295

- In 2016, the UK's parliament critized the intervention due to the refugee crisis, failed state and rise of ISIS in Libya - It was found that Qaddafi forces did not massacre civilians in rebellious areas, rendering Frances intervention for humanatarian reasons null and void (massacers were oversold and lie benefited ISIS in addition to radical Islamist rebels) - Reports find that France was motivated by economic and political intersts and not humantarian ones (oil)

Answer 296

- No, the Libyan state imploded and rebels controled various areas - Large Libyan weapon stores and currency reserves were left unguarded reuslting in seperatist and Islamist groups gaining access fueling unrest and fragility - Human security crisis: Libya's collaspe triggered massive refugee flow towards Europe | This is multicausal

Answer 297

- State power was measured in "ability to affect domestic political struggles in neighbouring states where weak regimes had trouble controlling thier own societies" - For example, Nasser's region-wide influence and rivalry with Saudi Arabia, it was played out in each country who supported one side of the rivalry over the other.

Answer 298

- States projected power where "local players sought reigonal allies against their own domestic opponents" - Military force and support of superpowers (superpowers however did not play a dominant role)

Answer 299

- Today, Iran (Shia) and Saudi Arabia (Sunni) play the leading roles

Answer 300

- They use acitvated identities as a way of projecting their power and carry out foreign policy in order to mobilize those entities. - They wage proxy wars against eachother by backing rivals in Yemen and Syria (no country wnats to battle one another so proxy war is the solution)

Answer 301

- It is a struggle over the direction of the Middle Eats's domestic politics more than it is a purely military contest - Ideological content is reflected across the middle east

Answer 302

1) Focus on states and interstate dynamics (alliance and war) 2) Focus on role and impact of on-state actors (ex violent armed groups)

Answer 303

1) Realism: seeks to explain persistence of high levels of interstate mistrust and conlfict, and deep external penetration of the region 2) Constructivism: approaches have focused on the role of Arab or Islamic idenity in explinaing regional conflicts and threats Note there is also an increased partiticpation of non-state actors.

Answer 304

1) It is coined to illustrate a 'speech act' that justifies emergency security measures against an "existenstial threat" - Naming a particular kind of threat to the body politic of the nation that implicitly jsutifies measures to secure the populace 2) By framing sectarian identities as conlficting sides of a zero-sum game, regional powers can mobilize fighters, militarize socities, and create fragmentation inside neighbouring states" - Shaping language constitutes power - Framing something as a secuirty that defines power relations and reminds the population who is boss. 3) It involves the deliberate painting of 'foes' and deliberate exaggeration of threat.

Answer 305

1) Monarchies vs republics (interstate) - Monarchs= west leaning - Republics= not a new feature but emerged during independence 2) The Sunni-Shia rift (interstate and transnational) - Main focus of the unit 3) Between the Muslimn Bortherhood and other versions of Sunni political Islam (intertrastate and transnational)

Answer 306

- The Arab Spring has toppled or weakended several regimes, leaving greater openings for non-state actors.

Answer 307

- Its politicization traces back to Iranian revoltuion (1978-79), and the estblishment of Shi'a Islamic republic. - The Iranian revolution's destablizaing effect in the Arab world ave rise to a new theorcratic model to compete with the existing Sunni mamlaka (kingdom) - New political ties were estbalished between Iran and Shia communities in the Arab world (example: alliance with Syria's Assad regime, creation of Hezbollah)

Answer 308

- Post-2003 Iraq and post- 2011 Syria the 'Shia Cresent' was strengthened (Iran, key Iraqui actors such as Syria and Hexbollah) due to politicization producing fragmentation - Various land bridges from Iran to Syria and Lebanon

Answer 309

- It aims to maximize Iranian power and influence vs Saudi Arabia and Israel - Sunni mocharchies (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar) have sought to coordinate their efforts to balance this.

Answer 310

- A state provides weapons and funding (and sometimes advisors) but not its own troops to support one side in an external conflict.

Answer 311

- In Syria, Iran uses foreign Shiite fighters from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, and Lebanon; also supports Assad regime with its own troops - Hezbollah forces also deploy in Syria - Iran sponsors Shi'a militias in Iraq - Saudis fight Iran-sponsored Houthi rebels in Yemen - Iran fights Saudi-sponsored Nusra Front rebels in Syria

Answer 312

- It is cheaper than committing troops directly - It confers advantage of greater regional influence through spread of funds, weapons, ideology - It also resonates among domestic popualtions who support a broader struggle, eg.g in Iran vs Israel or Isis takyfiris

Answer 313

- It is not Iranian and Saudi peoples that are suffering rather it is the Syrians, Yemeni's, Iraquis that suffer and die - When two elephants fight it is the grass that suffers

Answer 314

- 2015-present: for regional and religious reasons, Shi'a Houthis rebels are fighting the Saudi-backed Yemeni government - Iran has supplied Houthi rebels with missils and drones - 2019-present: Houthi rebels have scored spcetucular hits on Saudi military and oil infrastructure targets - Saudi aerial bombing has killed thousands of civilians triggers humanitarian crisis in Yemen.

Answer 315

- The most bloody, vicious, pertientn struggles in the Middle East today are between and within the Sunni world - The Arab Spring and subsequent uprisings have been mainly Sunni vs Sunni - Across Middle East, ISIS's victims have mostly been Sunni - In Syrian civil war, key Sunni states (ex Egypt) have been more pro-Assad than pro-rebel fearing Islamists rise - Shi'a Iran has assisted Sunni groups when convenient such as Hamas (anti Israel)

Answer 316

- State strength, inter-state war have declined since end of the Cold War - 2003 US-Uk invasion, 2010 Arab Spring have fractured Middle East states - Violence increasingly happens within states - Weak state control of territory has left power vacuums filled by insurgents

Answer 317

- it goes by many names: IS (Islamic States), ISIL (Islamic State in the Levant), and Da'esh (Arabic acronym) - Born in 2006 Iraq from remannts of Al-Qaeda in Iraq - As US troops left, Iraqui security forces were too weak to suppress IS - New Iraqui government fed IS commitment because of sunni resentment of Shi'as dominance in the government - Caliphate declared in June 14 on territory under its control - At its peak in 2014, ISIS controlled more than 34,000 square miles of territory in Syria and Iraq

Answer 318

1) Some key IS leaders were former members of Saddam Hussein’s government and army - Many of them became indoctrinated after being imprisoned under US occupation 2) In Iraq and Syria, IS has sought to control territory; impose harsh version of Islamic law - Weak Iraqi and Syrian governments have facilitated this

Answer 319

- 2013-4: ISIS seizes vast tracts of territory in Iraq and Syria - Immediately sets about governing millions of people under its control - Among Sunnis, it sought to “win hearts and minds” through ideological outreach and providing basic goods and services - ISIS enforced its rule through its own interpretation of Islamic law

Answer 320

- ISIS combined a ruthless, radical worldview with discipline and strategy - It captured quantities of US-built Iraqi army weaponry and controlled oil-rich territory - Drew new members from all over Middle East and beyond - In the Sunni-majority regions under its control in Syria and Iraq, IS often governed more effectively, less brutally than previous regimes

Answer 321

- ISIS didn’t seek short-term advantage; but aimed to establish sovereignty over “thousands of square miles of territory and millions of people” (Revkin) - ISIS’ legal system is based on Islamic law but has much more to do with state-building than with religion - Aside from military capability, it relies on legitimacy to be viable

Answer 322

- The social contract as reciprocal obligation between state and society - The state provides citizens with protection and basic rights in exchange for tax revenue - Charles Tilly’s “Protection-Racket State”: a type of racket and a scheme of organized crime perpetrated by a potentially hazardous organized crime group that generally guarantees protection outside the sanction of the law to another entity or individual from violence, robbery, ransacking, arson, vandalism, and other such threats, in exchange for payments at regular intervals. - ISIS established “courts, welfare institutions, and essential services”

Answer 323

- ISIS funded itself using hundreds of millions of dollars in black market oil revenue - Yet it relied more on the compliance of ordinary civilians as taxpayers (factor of 6:1) - ISIS imposed taxes it claimed were justified under Islamic law (zakat): “It wasn’t about money. It was about power”

Answer 324

- Civilians as “essential source of information, labour, and other material resources that are necessary for territorial expansion and state building” - ISIS demands exclusive allegiance to its government and material support (tax payments and/or military service) - In exchange, it provided: 1) Justice and accountability 2) Protection 3) Services: healthcare, educaiton, court system

Answer 325

- ISIS’ Wathiqat al-Madinah (“Rules of the city”) document supposedly based on code written by the Prophet to govern Medina in 622 - Versions issued in Raqqa (Syria), Mosul, Tikrit, and Hit (Iraq), and Sirte (Libya) - Such documents highlight ISIS’s perspective on governance

Answer 326

- Its reputation for terror can obscure “the relative legitimacy of ISIS compared to equally bad or even less desirable alternatives” (Revkin) - SIS’ social contract may be least bad option for civilians in civil war

Answer 327

- Though limited, they were legally defined and enforceable in courts - Citizens had rights to private property; protection from arbitrary arrest and unlawful violence (in theory) - Accountability: if ISIS members violate citizens’ rights, citizens could appeal to a “complaints” department - Evidence that ISIS punished many of its own civilian and military officials for such crimes as rape, armed robbery, embezzlement, smuggling

Answer 328

- Even non-Muslims from Abrahamic faiths (dhimmi) entitled to some protections in exchange for jizya tax payment - In practice, Christians targeted with expulsion or death if they did not convert (notably in Mosul) - Churches have also been targets of ISIS suicide bombers - Other religious minorities, notably Yazidis, targeted for death or enslavement

Answer 329

- ISIS has emphasized provision of essential services and public goods - Including electricity, infrastructure, sanitation, health care - Special incentives for recruits, including housing, salary, resources, marriage - Fun fact: international joiners were given more money etc reinforcing western supremacy

Answer 330

- ISIS has used forced conscription in areas under its control - As it began losing ground to various offensives in 2015-16, it imposed mandatory conscription on males over the age of 14 within its territory - Now, people with any former affiliation to ISIS are systematically persecuted by Iraqi government; often executed, even though they did not want to join in the first place

Answer 331

- Like Al-Qaeda, IS has spread through a local franchise model - Al-Shabaab in Somalia, Boko Haram in Nigeria, rebels in Libya and Egypt have declared loyalty to IS - IS has attracted thousands of volunteers from Middle East, Central, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia, elsewhere - IS “brand” widely disseminated on social media through statements on twitter, videos - Individuals and small groups elsewhere have also been inspired

Answer 332

- Muslim communities in Britain, France, Germany originate mainly with immigrants arriving from 1960s onward and their descendants - Ongoing spatial, social, and economic marginalization of these populations - This has led to radicalization in some circles - Ongoing case of Shamima Begum, British national who joined ISIS at 15, claims to be victim of human trafficking

Answer 333

- According to one recruit caught and jailed, “they have loads of people living in European countries and waiting for commands to attack the European people.” (Callimachi 2016) - “They want to have loads of attacks at the same time in England and Germany and France.” - ISIS had a specialized external operations branch, Emni - Emni coordinated Paris attacks and built the suitcase bombs used in Brussels attack - Evidence that ISIS agents actually recruited and directed ostensible “lone wolf” attackers via third-party operatives

Answer 334

- June 26, 2015 - Gunman kills 38 at a Tunisian hotel and bomb kills 27 in Kuwait. ISIS claims responsibility - November 13, 2015 - Three teams of gun-wielding ISIS suicide bombers hit six locations around Paris, killing at least 130 and wounding 494 - March 22, 2016 - ISIS attack at the airport and a subway station in Brussels kill more than 30 people and wound about 270 - June 28, 2016 – 44 people killed and 230 injured in ISIS suicide attack on airport in Istanbul - July 1-2, 2016 – ISIS-affiliated gunmen kill 22 at bakery in diplomatic district of Dhaka, Bangladesh - July 14, 2016 – Truck attack by self-radicalized individual kills 86 in Nice, France - May 22, 2017 – Manchester Arena bombing in Manchester, UK kills 22

Poli 341: Foreign Policy in the Middle East Flashcards

(361 cards)